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Bwagaoia

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Samarai

YELAI. V^TAGULA I.

CORAL

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5 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

took over the northeastern sector. In 1906 the British part (renamed Papua) passed to Australia, which also governed the Ger¬ man sector after World War I. After World War II, Australia governed both sectors as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Dutch New Guinea was annexed to Indonesia in 1969. Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975 and joined the British Commonwealth. By the mid-1990s the government of Papua New Guinea was seeking to resolve a long-standing conflict with Bougainville independence fighters, and in 2001 the two sides agreed on a peace treaty; Bougainville became an autonomous region in 2005.

Papuan Vpa-pyo-wonV languages Group of about 750 languages spoken by indigenous peoples of New Guinea and parts of some neigh¬ bouring islands, including Alor, Bougainville, Halmahera, New Britain, New Ireland, and Timor. Spoken by perhaps five million people, Papuan languages belong to about 60 families, the higher genetic relationships of which are still uncertain. This diversity, conjoined with the numerous Austronesian languages spoken on smaller parts of New Guinea and on adjacent islands, makes the region the most linguistically heterogeneous area of the world. The vast majority of Papuan languages have fewer than 100,000 speakers; among those with more are Chimbu and Enga, spoken in the highlands of Papua New Guinea.

papyrus \p3-'pl-r9s\ Writing material of ancient times and the plant from which it comes, Cyperus papyrus (sedge family), also called paper plant. This grasslike aquatic plant has woody, bluntly triangular stems and grows to about 15 ft (4.6 m) high in quietly flowing water up to 3 ft (90 cm) deep. The ancient Egyptians used the stem of the plant to make sails, cloth, mats, cords, and principally paper. Paper made from papyrus was the chief writing material in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In the 8th-9th century ad, other plant fibres replaced papyrus in the manufac¬ ture of paper. The plant is now often used as a pool ornamental in warm areas or in conservatories.

Para \pa-'ra\ River Channel of the Amazon River. It passes to the south and east of Marajo Island, in northeastern Para state, northern Brazil, and is about 200 mi (320 km) long and 40 mi (64 km) wide at its mouth. It carries a small part of the discharge of the Amazon east and north to the Atlantic Ocean, and its entire length is navigable.

parabola Npo-'ra-bo-loV Open curve, one of the conic sections. It results when a right circular cone intersects a plane that is parallel to an edge of the cone. It is also the path of a point moving so that its distance from a fixed line (directrix) is always equal to its distance from a fixed point (focus). In analytic geometry its equation is y = ax 2 + bx + c (a second- degree, or quadratic, polynomial function). Such a curve has the useful

property that any line parallel to its axis of symmetry reflects through its focus, and vice versa. Rotating a parabola about its axis produces a sur¬ face (paraboloid) with the same reflection property, making it an ideal shape for satellite dishes and reflectors in headlights. Parabolas occur naturally as the paths of projectiles. The shape is also seen in the design of bridges and arches.

Paracel \,par-9-'sel\ Islands Chinese Xisha Qundao or Hsi-sha Ch'un-tao Vshe-.sha-'chim-'daiA Vietnamese Quan Dao Hoang Sa Vkwan-'dau-'hwaq-'saV Group of about 130 small coral islands and reefs. South China Sea, east of central Vietnam and southeast of Hainan Island, China. The low, barren islands, none of which exceeds 1 sq mi (2.5 sq km) in area, lack fresh water, and there are no permanent human resi¬ dents. In 1932 the islands were claimed by French Indochina, and Japan occupied some of them during World War II. China, Taiwan, and Vietnam all claim them. In 1974 China assumed control, and they have remained a matter of contention.

Paracelsus \,par-3-'sel-s3s\ orig. Philippus Aureolus Theo¬ phrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (b. Nov. 11 or Dec. 17, 1493, Einsiedeln, Switz.—d. Sept. 24, 1541, Salzburg, Archbishopric of Salzburg) German-born Swiss physician and alchemist. He claimed to have received his doctoral degree at the University of Ferrara. He adopted the name “para-Celsus”—meaning “beyond Celsus” (the Roman author¬ ity on medicine)—and wandered throughout Europe and the Middle East, studying with alchemists. He valued the common sense of common people more than the dry teachings of Aristotle, Galen, and Avicenna and stressed nature’s healing power. All were welcome at his lectures (which he gave in German, not Latin) at the University of Basel, but such broadminded¬ ness scandalized the authorities, and eventually he was forced to flee the city. His written works include Great Surgery Book (1536). He anticipated by centuries the treatment of syphilis by mercury compounds, the real¬ ization that inhaled dust causes miners’ silicosis, and homeopathy, and he was the first to connect goitre with minerals in drinking water.

parachute Umbrella-like device for slowing the descent of a body fall¬ ing through the atmosphere. Separate panels sewn together form a canopy attached by suspension lines to a harness worn by the user. Originally designed to provide a safe escape from a disabled aircraft, parachutes are also used for dropping supplies and for slowing returning space capsules. The parachute was conceived by the 14th century, but practical demon¬ strations began only in the 1780s in France, leading in 1797 to a 3,200-ft (1,000-m) exhibition jump from a balloon by Andre-Jacques Garnerin (1769-1823); in 1802 he made a jump of 8,000 ft (2,400 m). Early para¬ chute material was canvas, which was later replaced by silk and then nylon. See also skydiving.

Paraclete See Holy Spirit

paradox Apparently self-contradictory statement whose underlying meaning is revealed only by careful scrutiny. Its purpose is to arrest atten¬ tion and provoke fresh thought, as in the statement “Less is more.” In poetry, paradox functions as a device encompassing the tensions of error and truth simultaneously, not necessarily by startling juxtapositions but by subtle and continuous qualifications of the ordinary meanings of words. When a paradox is compressed into two words, as in “living death,” it is called an oxymoron.

paradoxes of Zeno \'ze-,no\ Arguments by which Zeno of Elea upheld the doctrine of Parmenides that real Being is unique and unchang¬ ing. Zeno’s arguments were aimed at discrediting the beliefs in plurality and motion that were inconsistent with Parmenides’ doctrine. His best- known arguments are those against the reality of motion. One argument begins from the fact that a body in motion can reach a given point only after having traversed half the distance. But before traversing half, it must traverse half of this half, and so on ad infinitum; consequently, the goal can never be reached.

paraffin Paraffin wax, a mixture of organic compounds traditionally derived from petroleum but also obtained synthetically. It usually consists of alkane hydrocarbons (also called paraffins) and is used for coating and sealing, for candles, and in floor waxes, lubricants, waterproofing agents, and cosmetics. See also alkane.

Paragua See Palawan

Paraguana \,pa-ra-gwa-'na\ Peninsula Peninsula, northwestern Venezuela. Situated between the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Venezu-

1446 I Paraguay ► paralysis

ela, it has a low elevation, infertile soil, and a sparse population. It became important in the 1950s and ’60s with the development of the petroleum industry. Pipelines lead from the oil fields to the large refineries on the western side of the peninsula, which is accessible to deep-draft tankers.

Paraguay \,pa-ra-'gwl,\ English Vpar-o-.gwaV officially Republic of Paraguay Country, south-central South America. Area: 157,048 sq mi (406,752 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 5,905,000. Capital: Asuncion.

Most Paraguayans are mestizos; there are much smaller groups of American Indians and people of African, European, and Asian ancestry. Languages: Spanish and Guarani (both official). Religion: Chris¬ tianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: guarani. Paraguay is a landlocked country of plains and swampland. The Paraguay River, flowing from north to south, divides the country into two geographic regions: the eastern region, which is an extension of the Bra¬ zilian Plateau; and the western region, which forms the northern part of the Gran Chaco plains. Paraguay has a developing market economy that is based largely on agriculture, trade, and light industries. It is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the presi¬ dent. Seminomadic tribes speaking Guarani were in the area long before it was settled by Spain in the 16th-17th century. Paraguay was part of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata until it became independent in 1811. It suffered from dictatorial governments in the 19th century and was dev¬ astated by the War of the Triple Alliance (1864, 1865-70), which it fought against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. The Chaco War (1932-35), with Bolivia over territorial rights in the Gran Chaco, was settled primarily in Paraguay’s favour by the peace treaty of 1938. Military governments, including that of Alfredo Stroessner, predominated from the mid-20th century until a civilian president, Juan Carlos Wasmosy, was elected in 1993. The country suffered from a financial crisis beginning in the late 1990s.

Paraguay River River, South America. The fifth largest river in South America, it is 1,584 mi (2,550 km) long and the principal tributary of the Parana River. Rising in the Mato Grosso region of Brazil about 980 ft (300 m) above sea level, it crosses Paraguay to its confluence with the Parana near the Argentine border. The Gran Chaco plain extends west from the river.

Paraguayan War See War of the Triple Alliance

Paraiba do Sul X.pa-ra-'e-bo-dii-'suH River River, eastern Brazil. It is formed by the confluence of the Paraitinga and Paraibuna rivers east of Sao Paulo; it flows east-northeastward and forms part of the border between Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states before emptying into the

Atlantic Ocean after a course of about 700 mi (1,100 km). Its lower course is navigable, and it plays a vital role in Brazil’s social and economic life.

parakeet Any of 115 species in 30 genera (subfamily Psittacinae) of small, slender seed-eating parrots with a long, tapering tail. Parakeets are found worldwide in warm regions. They typically form large flocks. Most species lay four to eight eggs in a tree hole. The most popu¬ lar caged parakeet is the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), mistak¬ enly called lovebird; about 8 in. (19 cm) long, it may be any colour but usually has cheek spots and close barring on the upper parts.

parallax \'par-3-laks\ Difference in the direction of a celestial object as seen by observers from two widely separated points, a measure¬ ment used to find a body’s distance.

The two positions of the observers and that of the object form a triangle; its apex angle (at the object) is twice the parallax, which becomes smaller with increasing distance. Observations for calculating the Sun’s parallax can be made simultaneously from two different places on Earth’s surface; that value reaches a maximum of 8.794 seconds of arc for observers at points separated by Earth’s diameter. Observing the difference in an object’s position as seen from Earth at points six months apart in its orbit (stellar, or annual, parallax) allows measurements of distances (e.g., of stars) too large to be made from two places on Earth’s surface. The near¬ est star system, Alpha Centauri, has a stellar parallax of 0.76 second of arc. Highly precise parallaxes, and thus the positions, of more than 100,000 stars in the Sun’s vicinity were determined from data collected by the European Space Agency’s Hipparcos satellite (launched 1989).

parallel bars Event in men’s gymnastics in which a pair of wooden bars supported horizontally above the floor at the same height is used to perform acrobatic feats. Competi¬ tors combine swings and vaults with stationary positions requiring strength and balance, though swings and vaults must predominate. It has been included as an Olympic gym¬ nastics event since the modem games began in 1896. See also UNEVEN PARALLEL BARS.

parallel evolution Evolution of geographically separated groups in such a way that they show physical resemblances. A notable example is the similarity between the marsupial mammals of Australia and placental mammals elsewhere, which have arrived at remarkably similar forms through the separate courses of their evolution.

parallel postulate One of the

five postulates, or axioms, of Euclid underpinning Euclidean geometry. It states that through any given point not on a line there passes exactly one line parallel to that line in the same plane. Unlike Euclid’s other four pos¬ tulates, it never seemed entirely self-evident, as attested by efforts to prove it through the centuries. The uniqueness of Euclidean geometry, and the absolute identification of mathematics with reality, was broken in the 19th century when Nikolay Lobachevsky and Janos Bolyai (1802-60) indepen¬ dently discovered that altering the parallel postulate resulted in perfectly consistent non-Euclidean geometries.

paralysis or palsy Loss or impairment of voluntary use of one or more muscles. It may be flaccid (with loss of muscle tone) or spastic (stiff). Hemiplegia (one-sided paralysis) is usually caused by stroke or brain tumour on the opposite side. Diplegia (two-sided paralysis, as in cerebral palsy) results from generalized brain disease. Spinal-cord damage (from

Paul Hamm (U.S.) competes on the parallel bars during the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.

EZRA SHAW/GETTY IMAGES

Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), a popular parakeet.

BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

paramagnetism ► parchment I 1447

bone or joint disease, fracture, or tumour affecting the vertebrae; inflam¬ matory and degenerative diseases; or pernicious anemia) paralyzes the body at and below the level of the damage (paraplegia if the legs and lower body only; quadriplegia if arms and legs). Poliomyelitis and polyneuritis (neuritis of multiple nerves) result in paralysis with muscle wasting. Bell palsy (a type of neuritis) paralyzes the muscles of one side of the face. Muscular dystrophy causes paralysis by attacking muscle. Metabolic causes include myasthenia gravis. Paralysis may also have psychiatric causes (see hysteria).

paramagnetism Kind of magnetism that occurs in materials weakly attracted by a strong magnet. Compounds containing iron, palladium, platinum, and the rare-earth elements exhibit strong paramagnetism because they have atoms with some incomplete inner electron shells. Their unpaired electrons make the atoms behave like tiny permanent magnets that align with and strengthen an applied magnetic field. As the tempera¬ ture rises, strong paramagnetism decreases because of the greater random motion of the atoms. Weak paramagnetism, found in many solid metallic elements, is independent of temperature.

Paramaribo \,pa-ra-'ma-re-bo\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 233,000), sea¬ port, and capital of Suriname. Located on the Suriname River near the Atlantic Ocean, it was originally an Indian village before becoming a French settlement (c. 1640). In 1651 it became a British colony but was ceded to the Dutch in 1667. It is built on a shingle reef that stands 16 ft (5 m) above the river at low tide. Much of the distinctive Dutch colonial architecture and a canal system remain. Since 1945 the city has grown considerably because of tourism and industries.

paramecium V.par-o-'me-se-onA Any of the free-living, single-celled protozoans that make up the genus Paramecium. Most are about the size of the period at the end of this sentence. They vary in shape and are sur¬ rounded by a rigid protein layer (pellicle) covered with hundreds of cilia that beat rhythmically to propel them and to direct bacteria and other food particles into their oral groove. Food particles are collected into food vac¬ uoles, where digestion takes place. Two (occasionally three) contractile vacuoles close to the surface near the ends of the cell expand and con¬ tract as they discharge metabolic wastes and excess fluid. Paramecia have two kinds of nuclei: a large macronucleus (the centre of all metabolic activities) and at least one small micronucleus (which stores the genetic material necessary for sexual reproduction). See illustration opposite.

Paramount Communications Media and communications corpo¬ ration. It was founded (as Paramount Pictures Corp.) by W. W. Hodkin- son in 1914 as a film distributor. It became a motion-picture company two years later and won attention with stars such as Mary Pickford, Glo¬ ria Swanson, and Rudolph Valentino. In the late 1920s and 1930s the stu¬ dio added Claudette Colbert, Gary Cooper, and Marlene Dietrich to its roster. Forced to declare bankruptcy after its chain of theaters suffered losses during the transition to sound, the company was reorganized two years later as Paramount Pictures, Inc. Among its successes of the 1940s and ’50s were the films of Preston Sturges and Billy Wilder. In 1966 Gulf & Western Industries took control of Paramount, and the new company later changed its name to Paramount Communications. In 1994 it was acquired by Viacom Inc., which in 2000 merged with CBS.

Parana \,pa-ra-'na\ River River, South America. It is the continent’s second longest river (after the Amazon River) and rises on the plateau of southeast-central Brazil. It flows generally south 3,032 mi (4,880 km) to join the Uruguay River and form the Rio de la Plata estuary on the Atlan¬ tic Ocean. Its drainage basin includes most of southeastern Brazil, Para¬ guay, eastern Bolivia, and northern Argentina. From its origin at the confluence of the Grande and Paranafba rivers to its junction with the Paraguay River, it is known as the Alto (Upper) Parana. Completion of the Itaipii Dam between Paraguay and Brazil in the 1980s submerged the massive Guafra Falls and created a large reservoir.

paranoia Mental disorder characterized by delusions of persecution or grandeur, usually without hallucinations. Paranoia was formerly classified as a distinct psychosis but is now generally treated as one of several vari¬ eties of schizophrenia or, in milder cases, of personality disorder. The para¬ noid person generally suffers from exaggerated self-reference, a tendency to construe independent events and acts as pertaining to him- or herself.

parapsychology V.par-o-.sI-'ka-b-jeV Discipline concerned with investigating events that cannot be accounted for by natural law and knowledge that cannot have been obtained through the usual sensory

cytosome

(gullet)

food

vacuole

General features of a paramecium.

abilities. Parapsychology studies the cognitive phenomena often called extrasensory perception, in which a person acquires knowledge of other people’s thoughts or of future events through channels apparently beyond the five senses. It also examines physical phenomena such as the levita¬ tion of objects and the bending of metal through psychokinesis. Though belief in such phenomena may be traced to earliest times, parapsychol¬ ogy as a subject of serious research originated in the late 19th century, partly in reaction to the growth of the spiritualist movement. The Society of Psychical Research was established in London in 1882, and similar societies were later founded in the U.S. and in many European countries. In the 20th century research into parapsychology was also conducted at some universities, notably at Duke University under J. B. Rhine.

parasitism Vpar-o-so-.ti-zomX Relationship between two species in which one benefits at the expense of the other. Ectoparasites live on the body surface of the host; endoparasites live in their hosts’ organs, tissues, or cells and often rely on a third organism (the carrier, or vector) to trans¬ mit them to the host. The cuckoo and cowbird practice brood parasitism, laying eggs in other birds’ nests to be raised by the foster parents. In social parasitism, one type of animal parasitizes animals of the same type (e.g., one ant species on different ant species). Hyperparasitism occurs when parasites are parasitized (e.g., protozoans hyperparasitize a flea on a dog). See also predation.

parathyroid gland Endocrine gland, two to eight of which are embedded in each side of the thyroid gland. It secretes parathyroid hor¬ mone, which regulates blood calcium and phosphorus levels. When cal¬ cium in body fluids drops, increased hormone secretion releases calcium from bone into the bloodstream (see calcium deficiency). The hormone also increases excretion of phosphate in the urine, lowering blood concentra¬ tions, and may play a role in magnesium metabolism. When thyroid removal is required, the parathyroid glands must be separated out and left in place. See also endocrine system.

parchment Processed skins of certain animals (chiefly sheep, goats, and calves) that have been prepared for the purpose of writing on them. Parchment was probably invented in Greece in the 2nd century bc. Skins had been used for writing material even earlier (c. 2400 bc), but the new, more thorough method of cleaning, stretching, and scraping made pos¬ sible the use of both sides of a manuscript leaf, leading to the replace-

1448 I pardo ► Paris

ment of the rolled manuscript by the bound book (codex). Especially fine parchment is known as vellum. In modern usage, the terms “parchment” and “vellum” are sometimes used for a type of high-quality paper.

pardo Spanish "brown" In Venezuela, a person of mixed African, European, and Indian ancestry. In the colonial period, pardos, like all nonwhites, were kept in a state of servitude, with no hope of gaining wealth or political power. Nevertheless, most pardos remained royalists during much of the war for independence because they relied on Spain for protection in their conflicts with the Venezuelan-born whites, toward whom the European Spaniards took a superior attitude. In Brazil a pardo is a person of mixed European and African descent.

pardon In law, release from guilt or remission of punishment. The power to pardon is generally exercised by the state’s chief executive officer. A pardon may be full or conditional. A conditional pardon imposes a lesser punishment or some other obligation. Some states still bar par¬ doned offenders from holding public office or obtaining professional licenses.

Pare \pa-'ra\, Ambroise (b. 1510, Bourg-Hersent, France—d. Dec. 20, 1590, Paris) French physician and surgeon. Employed as an army sur¬ geon in 1537, Pare preferred measures less drastic than those of other sur¬ geons at the time (whose techniques included castration in hernia surgery and searing large arteries with hot irons during amputation) and operated only when necessary. He introduced the implantation of gold and silver teeth, artificial limbs, and artificial eyes (see prosthesis) and invented many instruments, popularized the truss for hernias, and first suggested that syphilis caused aneurysms. He published books on a wide variety of medical matters; his surgical works were especially influential.

Pareto \pa-'re-to\, Vilfredo (b. July 15, 1848, Paris, France—d. Aug. 19, 1923, Geneva, Switz.) Italian economist and sociologist. Educated at the University of Turin, he worked as an engineer and later served as a director of a large Italian railway. He taught at the University of Lausanne from 1893. His law of income distribution used a complex mathematical formula to trace historical patterns in the distribution of wealth. In 1906 he laid the foundation of modern welfare economics with his Pareto Opti¬ mum, which stated that a society’s resources are not optimally allocated as long as it is possible to make at least one person better off while keep¬ ing others as well off as before.

Parhae \'p6-'hl\ Chinese Pohai Vpo-'hA State established in the 8th century ad in northern Manchuria and northern Korea. Founded by a former Korean general, Tae Cho-yang, it was considered a successor state to Koguryo, which had occupied much of the same territory before its con¬ quest by Silla in 668. Like Silla, Parhae was a tributary state of Tang-dynasty China. It traded with the nomadic tribes of the north and with China and Japan. Parhae was conquered in 926 by the Khitan tribes almost 20 years after their creation of the Liao dynasty on China’s northern borders.

pari-mutuel V.par-i-'myii-cho-woB Betting pool in which those who bet on competitors finishing in the first three places share the total amount bet minus a percentage for the management. First introduced in France c. 1870, it soon became one of the most popular methods of betting on horse races internationally. Today computers calculate betting pools and current odds on each horse and flash the figures to the public at regular intervals. The system is used largely for off-track betting. Pari-mutuel betting is also practiced in dog racing and jai alai.

Pari a \p3-'re-9\, Gulf of Inlet of the Caribbean Sea, between Venezu¬ ela and Trinidad. Extending about 100 mi (160 km) from east to west and 40 mi (65 km) from north to south, it is linked with the Caribbean to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Its ports, including Port-of- Spain, Trinidad, handle shipments of petroleum, iron ore, and agricultural products. In 1498, on his third voyage to the Western Hemisphere, Chris¬ topher Columbus probably first sighted South America when he sailed into the gulf.

Paricutin \pa-'re-ku-,ten\ Volcano, western Michoacan state, west- central Mexico. It is about 9,210 ft (2,808 m) high and is one of the youngest volcanoes on Earth. It began to erupt in an open field in 1943 and buried the village of Paricutin. The eruption finally ceased in 1952.

Parilia \p3-'ri-le-9\ Ancient Roman festival celebrated annually on April 21 in honor of the goddess Pales, protector of flocks and herds. It was celebrated first by the early kings of Rome and later by the pontifex max- imus. The Vestal Virgins opened the festival by distributing straw and the

ashes and blood of sacrificed animals. Ritual cleaning, anointing, and adornment of herds and stalls followed. The celebrants jumped over a bonfire three times to complete the rite of purification.

Paris In Greek mythology, a son of King Priam of Troy and his wife, Hecuba. An evil portent prompted his parents to abandon him as an infant. Unknown to them, he was raised as a shepherd, and as a young man he was received home again after winning a boxing contest against Priam’s other sons. Zeus chose him to determine which of three goddesses was most beautiful— Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite. In the famous “judgment of Paris,” he chose Aphrodite because she offered to help him win the most beautiful woman alive. His seduction of Helen was the cause of the Tro¬ jan War. Near the end of the war, Paris shot the arrow that killed Achilles and soon afterward was himself killed.

Paris City (pop., 1999: 2,125,246; metro, area, 9,644,507), river port, capital of France. It is now located on both banks of the Seine River. The original settlement from which Paris evolved, Lutetia, was in existence by the late 3rd century bc on an island in the Seine. Lutetia was captured and fortified by the Romans in 52 bc. During the 1st century ad the city spread to the left bank of the Seine. By the early 4th century it was known as Paris. It withstood several Viking sieges (885-87) and became the capital of France in 987, when Hugh Capet, the count of Paris, became king. The city was improved during the reign of Philip II. who formally recognized the University of Paris c. 1200. In the 14th-15th centuries its development was hindered by the Black Death and the Hundred Years' War. In the 17th—18th centuries it was improved and beautified. Leading events of the French Revolution took place in Paris (1789-99). Napoleon III com¬ missioned Georges-Eugene Haussmann to modernize the city’s infrastruc¬ ture and add several new bridges over the Seine. The city was the site of the Paris Peace Conference, which ended World War I. During World War II Paris was occupied by German troops. It is now the financial, com¬ mercial, transportation, artistic, and intellectual centre of France. The city’s many attractions include the Eiffel Tower, Notre-Dame de Paris, the Louvre, the Pantheon, Pompidou Centre, and the Paris Opera, as well as boulevards, public parks, and gardens.

Paris, Congress of (1856) Conference in Paris to produce the treaty that ended the Crimean War. The treaty was signed between Russia on one side and France, Britain, Sardinia-Piedmont, and Turkey on the other. It guaranteed the independence and territorial integrity of Turkey. Russia was forced to surrender Bessarabia to Moldavia, warships of all nations were barred from the Black Sea, and the Danube River was opened to shipping of all countries. The congress also adopted the first codified law of the sea, which banned privateering and defined a legal naval blockade.

Paris, Treaty of (1229) Treaty by which Raymond VII of Toulouse con¬ ceded defeat to Louis IX of France after the Albigensian Crusade. It arranged the marriage of Raymond’s daughter and Louis’s brother and provided for the eventual return of Languedoc to the crown, thus destroying the independence of the princes of the south.

Paris, Treaty of (1259) Peace treaty signed by Henry III of England and Louis IX of France. It allowed the English to keep Aquitaine and nearby territories but obliged Henry to acknowledge himself the vassal of the French king. The agreement kept peace between England and France until the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War in 1337.

Paris, Treaty of (1763) Treaty concluding the Seven Years' War (including the French and Indian War). It was signed by Britain and Hanover on one side and France and Spain on the other. France renounced to Britain the mainland of North America east of the Mississippi, its con¬ quests in India since 1749, and four West Indian islands. Britain restored to France four other West Indian islands and the West African colony of Goree (Senegal). In return for recovering Havana and Manila, Spain ceded Florida to Britain and received Louisiana from the French.

Paris, Treaty of (1814) Treaty signed in Paris that ended the Napo¬ leonic Wars between France and the Allies (Austria, Britain, Prussia, Rus¬ sia, Spain, Sweden, and Portugal). The terms were generous to France, since Napoleon had abdicated and the Bourbon dynasty was restored. France was allowed to retain its boundaries of 1792 and ceded only sev¬ eral islands to Britain. Other terms were left to be discussed later.

Paris, Treaty of (1815) Second treaty between France and the Allies, following Napoleon’s Hundred Days and final defeat. It was harsher than the first Treaty of Paris (1814). France was required to return to its bor¬ ders of 1790 and was stripped of the Saar and Savoy regions; it was also

Paris ► Parker I 1449

obliged to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs and to support a 150,000-man army of occupation for three to five years.

Paris, University of Second oldest European university (after the University of Bologna), founded c. 1170 in France. It grew out of the cathedral schools of Notre-Dame and, with papal support, soon became a great centre of Christian orthodox teaching. In the medieval period its professors included St. Bonaventure, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas. Its most celebrated early college was the Sorbonne, founded c. 1257. The university declined somewhat under the impact of the Refor¬ mation and Counter-Reformation. With the French Revolution and Napo¬ leon’s reforms, teaching became more independent of religion and politics. By the mid-20th century the university had again become a pre¬ eminent scientific and intellectual centre. In May 1968 a Sorbonne stu¬ dent protest grew into a serious national crisis. This led to decentralizing reforms, the old university being replaced in 1970 by a system in Paris and its suburbs called the Universities of Paris I-XIII.

Paris Commune or Commune of Paris (March 18-May 28, 1871) Insurrection of Paris against the French government. After France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the collapse of the Second Empire, the republican Parisians feared that the conservative majority in the National Assembly would restore the monarchy. On March 18 the National Guard in Paris resisted orders to disarm, and after municipal elections were won by the revolutionaries, they formed the Commune government. Factions included the so-called Jacobins, who wanted the Paris Commune to control the revolution (as its namesake had in the French Revolution); the Proud- honists, socialist followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon who supported a fed¬ eration of communes; and the Blanquistes, socialist followers of Auguste Blanqui who demanded violent action. Government forces quickly sup¬ pressed communes elsewhere in France, then entered Paris on May 21. In a week of fierce fighting, they crushed the Communards, who had set up barricades in the streets and burned public buildings, including the Tuile- ries Palace. About 20,000 insurrectionists and 750 government troops were killed. In the aftermath, the government took harsh repressive action; 38,000 suspects were arrested and more than 7,000 were deported.

Paris-Match \pa-re-'mach\ Weekly pictorial magazine published in France since 1949 as the successor to L’Illustration (1843-1944). A popu¬ lar news and current-events magazine aimed at the middle class, it fea¬ tures picture-stories on such subjects as public affairs, entertainment, fashion, and consumer products. Its format resembles that of Life, and it is similarly noted for topicality and outstanding photography. Under the ownership of Jean Prouvost (d. 1978), it achieved prestige and financial success. It is now published by Hachette Filipacchi Medias, one of the world’s largest magazine publishers.

Paris Opera or Opera Gamier \o-per-'a-garn-'ya\ also Theatre Nationale de I/Opera Opera house in Paris designed by Charles Gamier (1825-98). The extraordinarily lavish building, considered one of the masterpieces of the Second Empire (Beaux-Arts style), was begun in 1861 and opened in 1875. The floor plan is as elaborate as the exterior. The interior features generous circulation space, including a grand stair¬ case and numerous richly decorated galleries, foyers, and corridors. The designation also applies to the opera company in Paris that for more than two centuries was the chief performer of serious operas and musical dra¬ mas in the French language. One of the most venerable operatic institu¬ tions in the world, it occupied Gamier’s building until 1990.

Paris Peace Conference (1919-20) Meeting that inaugurated the international settlement after World War I. It opened on Jan. 12, 1919, with representatives from more than 30 countries. The principal delegates were France’s Georges Clemenceau, Britain’s David Lloyd George, the U.S.’s Woodrow Wilson, and Italy’s Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, who with their foreign ministers formed a Supreme Council. Commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions, including reparations. The major products of the conference were the League of Nations; the Treaty of Versailles, presented to Germany; the Treaty of Saint-Germain, presented to Austria; and the Treaty of Neuilly, presented to Bulgaria. The inauguration of the League of Nations on Jan. 16, 1920, brought the conference to a close. Treaties were subsequently concluded with Hungary (Treaty of Trianon, 1920) and Turkey (Treaties of Sevres, 1920, and Lausanne, 1923).

parity In economics, equality in price, rate of exchange, purchasing power, or wages. In international exchange, parity exists when the exchange rate between two currencies makes the purchasing power of both

currencies equal. Adjustments to maintain parity can occur in the mar¬ ketplace as prices change in response to supply and demand, or through the intervention of national governments or international agencies such as the International Monetary Fund. In U.S. agricultural economics, the term parity is used for a system of regulating the prices of farm commodities, usually by government price supports and production quotas, to guaran¬ tee farmers the purchasing power they had in a past base period. Parity is also used in personnel administration to establish equitable wage rates for various classes of employees.

parity In physics, a property related to the symmetry of the wave func¬ tion representing a system of fundamental particles. It plays an important role in quantum mechanics in the description of a physical system. Parity transformation replaces a system with a type of mirror image in which the spatial coordinates describing the system are inverted, so that the coor¬ dinates x, y, and z are replaced with -x, -y, and —z. If a system is iden¬ tical to the original system after parity transformation, its parity is even. If the image is the negative of the original, its parity is odd. In either case, the physical observables of the system remain unchanged. In 1957 Chien- Shiung Wu (1912-1997) and coworkers made the surprising discovery that beta decay reactions do not conserve parity; in other words, the inverted image of the process does not exist in nature. This is a general property of the WEAK FORCE.

park Large outdoor area set aside for recreation. The earliest parks were hunting grounds of the Persian kings; such reserves became shaped by riding paths and shelters. A second type of park derived from the open- air meeting places of Greece, where the functions of an area for exercise, social concourse, and athletes’ training ground were combined with ele¬ ments of a sculpture gallery and religious centre. Parks of post- Renaissance times featured extensive woods, raised galleries, and often elaborate aviaries and cages for wild animals. What often differentiates present-day parks from parks of the past is their accommodation for active recreation; facilities may include outdoor theatres, zoos, concert shells, concessions for dining and dancing, amusement areas, boating areas, and areas for sports. See also national park.

Park, Mungo (b. Sept. 10, 1771, Fowlshiels, Selkirk, Scot.—d. c. January 1806, near Bussa on the Niger River) Scottish explorer of the Niger River. A trained surgeon. Park had traveled to the East Indies before being chosen by the African Association to head an expedition to find the source of the Niger River (1795-97). He lost most of his crew and sup¬ plies, was imprisoned and tortured for four months by hostile Arabs, and suffered severe illness, reaching Segou (now in Mali) but not the river’s source. His Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa (1797) became a great popular success. On a second expedition (1805-06) he reached Bam¬ ako, but he was killed on the return trip.

Park, Robert E(zra) (b. Feb. 14, 1864, Harveyville, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 7, 1944, Nashville, Tenn.) U.S. sociologist. After 11 years as a newspaper reporter, Park attended various universities and studied with scholars such as John Dewey, William James, Josiah Royce, and Georg Simmel. He then worked for Booker T. Washington and later taught at the University of Chicago—where he was a leading figure in the “Chicago school” of soci¬ ology, characterized by empirical research and the use of human ecology models—and at Fisk University. He is noted for his work on ethnic groups, particularly African Americans, and on human ecology, a term he has been credited with coining. Park wrote Introduction to the Science of Sociology (1921) and The City (1925) with Ernest W. Burgess; Race and Culture (1950) and Human Communities (1952) were published posthumously.

Parker, Alton B(rooks) (b. May 14, 1852, Cortland, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 10, 1926, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jurist. He practiced law in Kingston, N.Y., and was elected surrogate of Ulster county in 1877 and 1883. He was appointed to the New York Supreme Court in 1885, the state Appeals Court in 1889, and the appellate division of the state Supreme Court in 1896. From 1898 to 1904 he was chief justice of the New York court of appeals. On the bench, he was noted for upholding the rights of labour. As the Democratic Party presidential candidate in 1904, he represented the eastern, pro-gold-standard wing of the party. Soundly defeated by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt, he resumed his law practice.

Parker, Charlie orig. Charles Christopher Parker, Jr. (b. Aug. 29, 1920, Kansas City, Kan., U.S.—d. March 12, 1955, New York, N.Y.) U.S. saxophonist and composer. He played with Jay McShann’s big band (1940-42) and those of Earl Hines (1942-44) and Billy Eckstine (1944) before leading his own small groups in New York City. (A nickname

1450 I Parker ► parliamentary democracy

acquired in the early 1940s, Yard- bird, was shortened to Bird and used throughout his career.) Parker fre¬ quently worked with Dizzy Gillespie in the mid-1940s, making a series of small-group recordings that heralded the arrival of bebop as a mature out¬ growth of the improvisation of the late swing era. His direct, cutting tone and unprecedented dexterity on the alto saxophone made rapid tem¬ pos and fast flurries of notes trade¬ marks of bebop, and his complex, subtle harmonic understanding brought an altogether new sound to the music. Easily the most influential jazz musician of his generation,

Parker suffered chronic drug addic¬ tion, and his early death contributed to making him a tragic legend.

Parker, Dorothy orig. Dorothy Rothschild (b. Aug. 22, 1893,

West End, near Long Beach, N.J.,

U.S.—d. June 7, 1967, New York,

N.Y.) U.S. short-story writer and poet. She grew up in affluence in New York City. She was a drama critic for Vanity Fair and wrote book reviews for The New Yorker (1927- 33). Her poetry volumes include Enough Rope (1926) and Death and Taxes (1931). Her short stories were collected in Laments for the Living (1930) and After Such Pleasures (1933). She also worked as a film writer, reported on the Spanish Civil War, and collaborated on several plays. A member of the Algonquin Round Table, she is chiefly remem¬ bered for her wit.

Parkinson, C(yril) Northcote

(b. July 30, 1909, Barnard Castle,

Durham, Eng.—d. March 9, 1993,

Canterbury, Kent) British historian and writer. He received a Ph.D. from Kings College, London, and later taught at various schools in England and Malaya. He is most famous for his 1955 formulation of the satiric “Parkinson’s Law,” which stated that “Work expands to fill the time avail¬ able for its completion.” In The Law and the Profits (1960) he discussed a second law, “Expenditure rises to meet income.”

parkinsonism Neurological disorder causing progressive loss of con¬ trol of movement. It was first described in 1817 by British physician James Parkinson (1755-1824). The cause of primary parkinsonism, or Parkin¬ son disease, is unknown. The mean age of onset is about 57, but juvenile parkinsonism is also known. Neurons in the brain that normally produce dopamine deteriorate. When 60-80% are destroyed, signals suppressing unintended movement are disrupted and symptoms appear, including tremor at rest, muscle rigidity, trouble in starting movements, and loss of balance. Known causes include sleeping sickness; certain poisons; repeated blows to the head, as in boxing; and the drug MPTP. Environmental tox¬ ins or genetic susceptibility may account for some cases. Drug therapy requires careful scheduling and combinations to delay development of tolerance and side effects. Surgical pallidotomy (destruction of the glo¬ bus pallidus, a brain structure involved in motor control) and transplan¬ tation of fetal dopamine-producing tissue remain experimental.

Parkman, Francis (b. Sept. 16, 1823, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 8, 1893, Jamaica Plain, Mass.) U.S. historian. Parkman graduated from Harvard University before embarking in 1846 on a journey to the West that resulted in The California and Oregon Trail (1849). He is noted for his seven-part history France and England in North America, covering

the colonial period from the beginnings to 1763; its volumes include Pio¬ neers of France in the New World (1865); Montcalm and Wolfe (1884), which demonstrates how biography can penetrate the spirit of an age; and A Half-Century of Conflict (1892), which exemplifies his literary artistry.

Parks, Gordon (b. Nov. 30, 1912, Fort Scott, Kan., U.S.—d. March 7, 2006, New York, N.Y.) U.S. writer, photographer, and film director. As the first African American staff photographer for Life (1948-72), Parks became known for his portrayals of ghetto life, black nationalists, and the civil rights movement. His first work of fiction was The Learning Tree (1963), a novel about a black adolescent in Kansas in the 1920s. He com¬ bined poetry and photography in collections such as A Poet and His Cam¬ era (1968) and Glimpses Toward Infinity (1996). In 1968 he became the first African American to direct a major motion picture with his film adaptation of The Learning Tree. He later directed Shaft (1971), which helped give rise to the genre of African American action films known as “blaxploitation.” Parks also composed music.

Parks, Rosa orig. Rosa Louise McCauley (b. Feb. 4, 1913, Tuske- gee, Ala., U.S.—d. Oct. 24, 2005, Detroit, Mich.) U.S. civil rights activ¬ ist. She worked as a seamstress in Montgomery, Ala., where she joined the NAACP in 1943. In 1955 she was arrested after refusing to give her seat on a public bus to a white man. The resultant boycott of the city’s bus system, organized by Martin Luther King, Jr., and others, brought the civil rights movement to new prominence. In 1957 Parks moved to Detroit, where she was a staff assistant (1965-88) to U.S. Rep. John Conyers. She was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1999.

Parlement Vpar-b-montN Supreme court under the ancien regime in France. It developed out of the curia regis (“king’s court”) in which the Capetian kings convened their chief vassals and prelates to consider feu¬ dal and political issues. By the mid-13th century this judicial institution was known as Parlement and served as a court of appeals against the judgments of royal officials. Later Parlements also reviewed the king’s edicts to determine whether they were just and lawful. The chief Parle¬ ment was located in Paris, and others were established in the provinces. The Parlements were abolished in the French Revolution.

Parliament Legislative assembly of Britain and of other governments modeled after it. The British Parliament consists of the monarch, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons, and traces its roots to the union (c. 1300) of the Great Council and the King’s Court, two bodies that treated with and advised the king. In the 14th century, Parliament was split into two houses, with the lords spiritual and temporal (i.e., not only the nobility but also high officials of the church) debating in one and the knights and burgesses in the other. In the 14th century Parliament also began to present petitions (“bills”) to the king, which with his assent would become law. Robert Walpole was the first party leader to head the government as prime minister (1721-42). See also parliamentary democracy.

Parliament, Canadian Legislature of Canada, created by the British North America Act. The 301 members of its House of Commons are elected for maximum terms of five years from the provinces on the prin¬ ciple of representation by population. The 105 members of its Senate are appointed by Canada’s governor-general from the regions of Canada and serve until age 75. The parliament has authority over the armed forces, regulates trade and commerce, levies taxes, and is in charge of banking, credit, currency and bankruptcy, criminal law, postal services, fisheries, patents and copyrights, the census, navigation and shipping, railways, canals, and telegraphs. It also retains powers not specifically assigned to provincial legislatures. The leader of the party winning the most seats in a general election becomes prime minister and is called on by the governor-general to form a government. He generally chooses elected party colleagues to form the cabinet. The party winning the second-largest number of seats in the House becomes the official opposition party.

Parliament Act of 1911 Act passed in the British Parliament that deprived the House of Lords of its absolute power of veto on legislation. Proposed by a Liberal majority in the House of Commons, the act stated that any bill passed unchanged by the Commons in three separate ses¬ sions over two years could be presented for the royal assent (necessary for a bill to become law) without the Lords’ consent. By subordinating the Lords to the Commons, the act was seen as another step in making the British Constitution more democratic.

parliamentary democracy Democratic form of government in which the party (or a coalition of parties) with the greatest representation

parliamentary procedure ► parrot I 1451

in the parliament (legislature) forms the government, its leader becoming prime minister or chancellor. Executive functions are exercised by members of the parliament appointed by the prime minister to the cabinet. The par¬ ties in the minority serve in opposition to the majority and have the duty to challenge it regularly. The prime minister may be removed from power whenever he loses the confidence of a majority of the ruling party or of the parliament. Parliamentary democracy originated in Britain (see Par¬ liament) and was adopted in several of its former colonies.

parliamentary procedure or rules of order Generally accepted rules, precedents, and practices used in the governance of deliberative assemblies. They are intended to maintain decorum, ascertain the will of the majority, preserve the rights of the minority, and facilitate the orderly transaction of business. Rules of parliamentary procedure originated in Britain in the 16th and 17th centuries and were subsequently adopted by legislatures around the world. Robert’s Rules of Order, codified in 1876 by U.S. Gen. Henry M. Robert (1837-1923) and regularly refined and enlarged, is the standard set of rules used by legislatures in the U.S.

Parma City (pop, 2001 prelim.: 156,172), Emilia-Romagna region, north¬ ern Italy. Located on the Parma River, the site was founded by the Romans in 183 bc; it became an episcopal see in the 4th century ad. Parma was destroyed by the Ostrogoths under Theodoric I but was rebuilt in the Middle Ages. Made part of the duchy of Parma and Piacenza in 1545, it was held by the Farnese family and later passed to the Austrians. In 1815 Napoleon gave the city to his second consort, Marie-Louise. In 1861 it became part of united Italy. It was badly damaged during World War II but was rebuilt. It is the commercial centre of an agricultural region and is famous for its Parmesan cheese. Sites of interest include the 12th- century Romanesque cathedral, the 13th-century baptistery, and the uni¬ versity (founded in the 11th century).

Parmenides \par- , men-9-,dez\ (b. c. 515 bc) Greek philosopher, leader of the Eleatics. His general teaching has been reconstructed from the few surviving fragments of his lengthy verse composition On Nature. He held that the multiplicity of existing things, their changing forms and motion, are but an appearance of a single eternal reality, “Being.” This doctrine, which was formulated as the principle that “all is one,” entails that all claims of change or of non-Being are illogical. Because of his method of basing claims about appearances on a logical concept of Being, he is con¬ sidered a founder of metaphysics. Plato’s dialogue Parmenides discusses his thought.

Parmigianino \,par-mi-ja-'ne-no\ orig. Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola (b. Jan. 11, 1503, Parma, Duchy of Milan—d. Aug. 24, 1540, Casalmaggiore, Cremona) Italian painter and etcher. He painted some of his early frescoes for San Giovanni Evangelista; they were influ¬ enced by Correggio, who had recently worked in the same church. His originality is seen in his Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1524). His Madonna of the Long Neck (1534) is typical of his later work, which is characterized by ambiguity of spatial composition, elongation of the human figure, and the pursuit of a rhythmical, sensuous beauty beyond nature. Among the most remarkable portrait painters of his age, he was one of the first artists to develop the elegant and sophisticated version of Mannerism that influenced the next generation of painters and was one of the first Italian artists to practice etching.

Parnaiba \,par-na- , e-b3\ River River, northeastern Brazil. It rises in the Tabatinga Mountains and flows northeast for 1,056 mi (1,700 km) to empty into the Atlantic Ocean, forming a delta at its mouth. The river has great economic importance. It is navigable by shallow-draft vessels from its mouth at least as far south as the junction of the Caninde River. The port of Parnaiba, located near the river’s mouth, is a commercial centre.

Parnassian \par-'na-se-9n\ Members of a French school of poetry of the second half of the 19th century that was headed by Charles-Marie- Rene Leconte de Lisle (1818-94) and Th£ophile Gautier. The Parnassians stressed restraint, objectivity, technical perfection, and precise description as a reaction against the emotionalism and verbal excess of Romanticism. Their name came from the anthology to which they contributed, Le Par- nasse contemporain (1866, 1871, 1876). Their influence was evident in movements such as Modernismo and led to experimentation in metres and verse forms and the revival of the sonnet.

Parnassus \par-'na-sos\, Mt. Mountain in central Greece. Located in the Pindus range, it rises to a height of 8,061 ft (2,457 m). In the ancient world it was sacred to Apollo and the Corycian nymphs, probably because

of its proximity to Delphi and its oracle. For Roman poets the Castalian spring on Parnassus was a source of inspiration, and the mountain was regarded as the home of the Muses.

Parnell \par-'nel\, Charles Stewart (b. June 27, 1846, Avondale, County Wicklow, Ire.—d. Oct. 6, 1891, Brighton, Sussex, Eng.) Irish nationalist leader. After an education at the University of Cambridge, he returned to Ireland and served in the British Parliament (1875-91), intro¬ ducing obstructionist legislative tactics to call attention to Ireland’s needs. In 1877 he became president of the Home Rule Confederation. He was jailed for making violent speeches against the new land act (1881-82), then released to curb an increase in terrorist acts. Reaction against the Phoenix Park murders enabled him to unite factions in Ireland to win sup¬ port for parliamentary measures, such as William E. Gladstone’s Home Rule proposals. He remained popular in Ireland until he was named in the divorce suit of his mistress, Katherine O’Shea (1890).

parochial education Education offered institutionally by a religious group. The curriculum usually includes both religious and general stud¬ ies. In the U.S. and Canada, parochial education has referred primarily to elementary and secondary schools maintained by Roman Catholic par¬ ishes, but it can also apply to schools operated by Protestant, Jewish, Muslim, and Buddhist organizations, among others.

parody In literature, a work in which the style of an author is closely imitated for comic effect or in ridicule. Differing from both burlesque (by the depth of its technical penetration) and travesty (which treats dignified subjects in a trivial manner), parody mercilessly exposes the tricks of manner and thought of its victim and therefore cannot be written without a thorough appreciation of the work it ridicules. Examples date from as early as ancient Greece and occur in nearly all literatures and all periods.

parole Supervised conditional liberty from prison granted prior to the expiration of a prisoner’s sentence. Modern use of parole stems from a change in penal philosophy to emphasize rehabilitation rather than retri¬ bution. In some jurisdictions, those convicted of certain crimes (e.g., rape or murder) are not eligible for parole. Conditions of parole vary, but in all cases their violation may constitute grounds for reincarceration. Parole supervision ranges from little more than a periodic police check to inten¬ sive supervision by trained personnel. See also probation.

Parr, Catherine See Catherine Parr

Parra, Nicanor (b. Sept. 5, 1914, San Fabian, Chile) Chilean poet. A student of mathematics and physics, Parra began teaching theoretical physics at the University of Chile in 1952. One of the most important Latin American poets of the 20th century, he is known for originating so-called antipoetry (poetry that opposes traditional poetic techniques or styles). In Poems and Antipoems (1954), he sought to make poetry acces¬ sible to the masses by treating everyday problems of a grotesque world in clear language with black humour and ironic vision. In later works he experimented with language, and he continued to use antipoetic tech¬ niques.

Parrhasius \po-'ra-zh3s\ or Parrhasios (fl. 5th century bc, Athens, Greece) Greek painter. He was praised by ancient critics as a master of outline drawing. He apparently succeeded in portraying various psycho¬ logical states in his depictions of the face. Many of his drawings on wood and parchment were preserved and highly valued by later painters for purposes of study. His picture of Theseus adorned the Capitol in Rome; other works were chiefly mythological groups. No works or copies sur¬ vive.

Parrish \'par-ish\, (Frederick) Maxfield (b. July 25, 1870, Phila¬ delphia, Pa., U.S.—d. March 10, 1966, Plainfield, N.H.) U.S. illustrator and painter. Trained at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and Drexel Institute of Art, he was the highest-paid commercial artist and muralist in the U.S. by the 1920s. He is best known for his depictions of fantasy landscapes populated by attractive young women. He used meticulously defined outlines and intricately detailed natural back¬ grounds; his unusual colours, especially the luminous “Parrish blue,” give his pictures a dreamlike quality. Though his popularity declined in the late 1930s, appreciation of his work revived in the 1960s and ’70s.

parrot Any of the 333 species of birds in the family Psittacidae. About 220 species of true parrots (subfamily Psittacinae) are found worldwide in warm regions (see parakeet). Many are brilliantly coloured. They have a blunt tongue and eat seeds, buds, and some fruit and insects. Their vocal

1452 I parrot fish ► Partch

apparatus permits many species to mimic human speech with great accuracy. The African gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus ), intelligent and a particularly good talker, is about 13 in. (33 cm) long and is gray except for a red tail and white face; it lives up to 80 years. The 31 species of Amazon parrots (genus Amazona), also good mimics, are 10-16 in.

(25-40 cm) long and predominantly green. Four other subfamilies are found chiefly around New Zealand and Australia, as are the cockatoos and cockatiel (family Cacatuidae); these are often considered parrots as well because they are classified with Psittacidae in the order Psittaci- formes. See also kea; lovebird; macaw.

parrot fish Any of about 80 species (family Scaridae) of slender, blunt¬ headed, deep-bodied fishes found on tropical reefs. They are often brightly coloured and have large scales. The fused teeth form a “beak” used to scrape algae and the soft part of coral from reefs. Platelike teeth in the throat grind the ingested food and bits of coral. Some species grow to 4 ft (1.2 m) long and weigh 45 lb (20 kg). The Indo-Pacific surf, or rivu- lated, parrot fish ( Callyodon fascia- tus) grows to 18 in. (46 cm) or more.

The queen parrot fish ( Scarus vetula) is an Atlantic species.

parsec Unit of measure used by astronomers to express distances to stars and galaxies. It is the distance at which the radius of Earth’s orbit would subtend an angle of one sec¬ ond of arc, so an object one parsec away would have a parallax of one second. An object’s distance in parsecs is the reciprocal of its parallax in seconds of arc. For example, Alpha Centauri, with a parallax of 0.76 sec¬ ond, is 1.33 parsecs from the Sun and Earth. One parsec equals 3.26 light- years, or 19.2 trillion mi (30.9 trillion km).

Parshvanatha Vparsh-vo-'na-toV (fl. 8th century bc) In Jainism, the 23rd Tirthankara, or saint, of the present age. He founded a religious order and formulated four vows binding on its members (not to kill, steal, lie, or own property; a vow of celibacy was added later by Mahavira). Accord¬ ing to legend, Parshvanatha once saved a family of serpents trapped in a log in an ascetic’s fire. One of the snakes, later reborn as Dharana, the lord of the underworld kingdom of nagas (snakes), sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm sent by an enemy demon. In sculpture and painting Parsh¬ vanatha is depicted with a canopy of snake hoods over his head.

Parsi or Parsee Zoroastrian of India. The Parsis, whose name means “Persians,” are descended from Persian Zoroastrians who immigrated to India to escape persecution by Muslims. The migration occurred sometime between the 8th and 10th century. The Parsis settled in Gujarat and became a farming community. When the British East India Co. took control of the region around Bombay (now Mumbai) in the late 17th century and estab¬ lished religious freedom, many Parsis moved there, and by the 19th century they had become a wealthy merchant class. The Parsis still live chiefly in the Mumbai area, though other Parsi communities exist in Bangalore, India, and Karachi, Pakistan. See also Zoroastrianism and Parsiism.

Parsiism See Zoroastrianism and Parsiism

parsley Hardy biennial herb ( Petroselinum crispum) of the family Api- aceae, or Umbelliferae, native to Mediterranean lands. The compound leaves are used in cooking. The family Apiaceae, sometimes called the parsley family, contains 300-400 genera of plants found in a wide vari¬ ety of habitats, mostly in northern temperate regions. Most are aromatic herbs with feathery leaves. The flowers are often arranged in a conspicu¬ ous umbel (a flat-topped cluster). Many species are poisonous, including poison hemlock. Popular members of the family include carrot, celery, parsnip, and fennel. Species used as herbs and spices include anise, dill, coriander, caraway, and cumin ( Cuminum cyminum).

parsnip Plant (. Pastinaca sativa) of the parsley family, cultivated for its large, tapering, fleshy, edible white root, which has a distinctive, sweet flavour and is usually served as a cooked vegetable. At the end of sum¬ mer the solids of the root consist largely of starch, but a period of low temperature changes much of the starch to sugar. The root is hardy and not damaged by hard freezing of the soil. Native to Britain, Europe, and temperate Asia, the parsnip has become extensively naturalized in North America.

Parsons, Sir Charles Alger¬ non (b. June 13, 1854, London,

Eng.—d. Feb. 11, 1931, Kingston Harbour, Jam.) British mechanical engineer. He began work at the Arm¬ strong engineering works in New¬ castle upon Tyne in 1877 and formed his own company to manufacture turbines and other heavy machinery in 1889. He developed the multiple- stage turbine in 1884 and had intro¬ duced it in power plants to generate electricity by 1891. Modern steam and nuclear power plants still use turbines of this type to turn their gen¬ erators. He demonstrated his marine turbine in Turbinia, a vessel that attained a speed of over 34 knots in 1897; Parsons turbines made high¬ speed ocean liners possible.

Parsons, Elsie Clews orig. Elsie Worthington Clews (b. Nov. 27, 1875, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 19, 1941, New York City) U.S. sociologist, anthropologist, and folklorist. She was trained in sociology. Her early works, advocating women’s rights, included The Family (1906) and The Old-Fashioned Woman (1913). She later turned to anthropology under the influence of Franz Boas and Alfred L. Kroeber. Her Pueblo Indian Religion (1936) and Mitla (1936) remain standard studies of Pueblo and Zapotec Indian cultures. She also produced notable collections of West Indian and African American folklore.

Parsons, Talcott (b. Dec. 13, 1902, Colorado Springs, Colo., U.S.—d. May 8, 1979, Munich, W.Ger.) U.S. sociologist. Parsons taught at Har¬ vard University from 1927 to 1973. He advocated a structural-functional analysis, a study of the ways that interrelated and interacting units form¬ ing the structures of a social system contribute to the system’s develop¬ ment and maintenance. He was largely responsible for introducing the work of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber to American sociologists. His major work is The Structure of Social Action (1937). See also functionalism.

Parson's Cause Dispute involving English clergy in colonial Virginia over payment of salaries. When the British vetoed colonial laws that sub¬ stituted currency for tobacco as payment for clerical salaries (1759), the clergy sued for back pay. In the most publicized case (1763), Patrick Henry defended a colonial parish against a suit by a clergyman, citing interfer¬ ence by the British and convincing a jury to return only one penny in damages. The clergy soon gave up their protest.

Part, Arvo (b. Sept. 11, 1935, Paide, Est.) Estonian composer. After years of experimentation, he began in the late 1970s to produce his own distinctive music. A devoutly Orthodox Christian, he developed a style based on the slow modulation of sounds such as those produced by bells and pure voice tones, a technique reminiscent of the medieval Notre-Dame school and the sacred music of Eastern Orthodoxy. His major works include the violin concerto Tabula Rasa (1977), Cantus in Memory of Benjamin Britten (1977), Magnificat-Antiphones (1988), and The Beati¬ tudes (1991).

Partch, Harry (b. June 24, 1901, Oakland, Calif., U.S.—d. Sept. 3, 1974, San Diego, Calif.) U.S. composer and instrument maker. He grew up in Arizona and was largely self-taught musically. During the Great Depression, he traveled as a hobo, conceiving many of his musical ideas while doing so. About 1930 he began building original percussion and string instruments, tunable to 43 divisions of the octave. His works often involve theatrical elements, reflecting his interest in African, Japanese, and Native American ritual. They include Barstow — 8 Hitchhiker Inscrip-

(family Scaridae) of slender, blunt-

Parrot fish (Calotomus).

DOUGLAS FAULKNER

Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa).

G.R. ROBERTS

parterre ► parturition I 1453

dons from a Highway Railing at Barstow, California (1941), US High¬ ball (1943), and And on the Seventh Day Petals Fell on Petaluma (1966).

parterre \par-'ter\ Division of garden beds in an ornamental pattern. The parterre grew out of the knot garden, a medieval form of bed in which various plant types were separated from each other by hedges. In the 16th century, the hedges were replaced by wooden or leaden shapes or by lines of shells or coal, and the areas between were filled with colored sand or stone chips. The naturalistic English garden of the 18th century displaced the elaborate parterre.

Parthenon Vpar-tho-.nanV Chief temple of Athena on the Acropolis at Athens. Built 447-432 bc by Ictinus and Callicrates under Pericles, it is considered the culmination of the Doric order. Though the white marble temple has suffered damage over the centuries, including the loss of most of its sculpture, its basic structure remains intact. The colonnade supports an entablature consisting of a plain architrave, a frieze of alternating tri¬ glyphs (grooved blocks) and metopes (plain blocks with relief sculpture) and, at the two ends, a triangular pediment. The colonnade consists of eight columns on the ends and 17 on the sides, enclosing a cella; the inte¬ rior originally held a great gold-and-ivory statue by Phidias. Such archi¬ tectural devices as entasis of the columns and an upward curvature of the base are used to correct optical illusions. Its sculpture rivaled its archi¬ tecture. The pediment sculptures represent the birth of Athena and her battle with Poseidon; a continuous frieze shows the annual Panathenaic procession of citizens honoring Athena. The entire work is a marvel of harmony and clarity. See also Elgin Marbles.

Parthenon, on the Acropolis, Athens, by Ictinus and Callicrates, 447-432 bc

ALISON FRANTZ

Parthia Ancient land, southwestern Asia. Corresponding roughly to modern northeastern Iran, it formed a province of the Persian Achaeme- nian dynasty and later of the empire of Alexander the Great. After the dis¬ solution of the Seleucid dynasty c. 250 bc, a new Parthian kingdom was founded by Arsaces. The Arsacid dynasty ruled until it was overthrown by the Sasanian dynasty c. ad 226. At its height in the early 1st century bc, it was known as the Parthian empire and included the area between the Euphrates and Indus rivers and between the Amu Darya and the Arabian Sea. It was weakened by internal disorder and by conflict with Rome in the 1st century bc. One of its later capitals was Hecatompylos. The ruins of Ctesiphon, another major Parthian city, are in modem Iraq, near Bagh¬ dad. The Parthians were famous as horsemen and archers.

Parti Quebecois \par-te-ka-be-'kwa\ Provincial Canadian political party founded in 1968 by Rene Levesque and other French-Canadian sepa¬ ratists in the province of Quebec. In the 1976 provincial election it won a majority in the Quebec assembly, which then decreed French as the province’s only official language of government and business. After a separatist referendum on independence failed (1980), the party lost mem¬ bership. The party revived in the 1990s, winning the provincial election in 1994. In 1995 the party held another referendum on secession, which was narrowly defeated.

partial derivative In differential calculus, the derivative of a function of several variables with respect to change in just one of its variables. Par¬ tial derivatives are useful in analyzing surfaces for maximum and minimum points and give rise to partial differential equations. As with ordinary derivatives, a first partial derivative represents a rate of change or a slope

of a tangent line. For a three-dimensional surface, two first partial deriva¬ tives represent the slope in each of two perpendicular directions. Second, third, and higher partial derivatives give more information about how the function changes at any point.

partial differential equation In mathematics, an equation that con¬ tains partial derivatives, expressing a process of change that depends on more than one independent variable. It can be read as a statement about how a process evolves without specifying the formula defining the pro¬ cess. Given the initial state of the process (such as its size at time zero) and a description of how it is changing (i.e., the partial differential equa¬ tion), its defining formula can be found by various methods, most based on integration. Important partial differential equations include the heat equation, the wave equation, and Laplace's equation, which are central to MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS.

particle accelerator Device that accelerates a beam of fast-moving, electrically charged atoms (ions) or subatomic particles. Accelerators are used to study the structure of atomic nuclei (see atom) and the nature of subatomic particles and their fundamental interactions. At speeds close to that of light, particles collide with and disrupt atomic nuclei and sub¬ atomic particles, allowing physicists to study nuclear components and to make new kinds of subatomic particles. The cyclotron accelerates posi¬ tively charged particles, while the betatron accelerates negatively charged electrons. Synchrotrons and linear accelerators are used either with posi¬ tively charged particles or electrons. Accelerators are also used for radio¬ isotope production, cancer therapy, biological sterilization, and one form of radiocarbon dating.

particle physics or high-energy physics Study of the fundamen¬ tal subatomic particles, including both matter (and antimatter) and the car¬ rier particles of the fundamental interactions as described by quantum field theory. Particle physics is concerned with structure and forces at this level of existence and below. Fundamental particles possess properties such as electric charge, spin, mass, magnetism, and other complex characteristics, but are regarded as pointlike. All theories in particle physics involve quan¬ tum mechanics, in which symmetry is of primary importance. See also elec- TROWEAK THEORY, LEPTON, MESON, QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS, QUARK.

parting In metallurgy, the separation of gold and silver by chemical or electrochemical means. Gold and silver are often extracted together from the same ores or recovered as by-products from the extraction of other metals. A solid mixture of the two, known as bullion or dore, can be parted by boiling in nitric acid. The silver is dissolved as silver nitrate, leaving a gold residue that is filtered off and washed; silver is precipitated out of solution by adding ferrous sulfate. This is the traditional method used in assaying the content of gold and silver samples.

partnership Association of two or more persons or entities that con¬ duct a business for profit as co-owners. Except in the case of the limited liability partnership, which shares with the corporation the characteristic of being treated as a single entity whose members have limited personal liability, a partnership is traditionally viewed as an association of indi¬ viduals rather than an entity with a separate and independent existence. A partnership cannot exist beyond the lives of the partners. The partners are taxed as individuals and are personally liable for torts and contrac¬ tual obligations. Each is viewed as the agent of the others, and tradition¬ ally all are jointly and severally liable for the tortious acts of any partner.

partridge Any of certain species of Old World game bird in the fam¬ ily Phasianidae. The European gray partridge {Perdix perdix), introduced into North America, has a reddish face and tail, gray breast, barred sides, and a dark U shape on the belly. Males may be 12 in. (30 cm) long. The hen lays about 15 eggs in a grassy cup in grainfields or hedges. Family groups (coveys) forage for seeds and insects. The five Asian and 35 Afri¬ can species of francolins (genus Francolinus ) have leg spurs and are 10—16 in. (25-40 cm) long. The snow partridge (Lerwa lerwa ) inhabits high Asian mountains. Partridges are larger than quail and have a stron¬ ger bill and feet. Grouse and bobwhites are often erroneously called par¬ tridge.

parturition or birth or childbirth or labour or delivery Process of bringing forth a child from the uterus, ending pregnancy. It has three stages. In dilation, uterine contractions lasting about 40 seconds begin 20-30 minutes apart and progress to severe labour pains about every 3 minutes. The opening of the cervix widens as contractions push the fetus. Dilation averages 13-14 hours in first-time mothers, less if a woman has

1454 I Party of God ► Pascin

had previous babies. When the cervix dilates fully, expulsion begins. The “water” (amniotic sac) breaks (if it has not already), and the woman may actively push. Expulsion lasts 1-2 hours or less. Normally, the baby’s head emerges first; other positions make birth more difficult and risky. In the third stage, the placenta is expelled, usually within 15 minutes. Within six to eight weeks, the mother’s reproductive system returns to nearly the prepregnancy state. See also cesarean section; lactation; midwifery; miscar¬ riage; NATURAL CHILDBIRTH; OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY; PREMATURE BIRTH.

Party of God See Hezbollah

party system Political system in which individuals who share a com¬ mon set of political beliefs organize themselves into parties to compete in elections for the right to govern. Single-party systems are found in countries that do not allow genuine political conflict. Multiparty and two- party systems represent means of organizing political conflict within plu¬ ralistic societies and are thus indicative of democracy. Multiparty systems allow for greater representation of minority viewpoints; since the coali¬ tions that minority parties must often form with other minority parties to achieve a governing majority are often fragile, such systems may be marked by instability. See also electoral system.

Parvati Vpar-v9-,te\ Wife of the Hindu god Shiva. Parvati is the benevo¬ lent aspect of Shakti, the Hindu supreme goddess (see Shaktism).

According to the traditional account of her marriage, she won Shiva’s notice only after severe ascetic dis¬ cipline. The couple had two children, the elephant-headed Ganesha and the six-headed Skanda. In sculpture Par¬ vati is always depicted as a mature and beautiful woman. The sacred Tantras are framed as a discussion between Parvati and Shiva.

Pas de Calais See Strait of Dover

pas de deux \pa-d9-'doe\ French "step for two" Dance for two performers. A characteristic part of classical ballet, it includes an adagio, or slow dance, by the ballerina and her partner; solo variations by the male dancer and then the ballerina; and a coda, or conclusion, with both partners dancing together to display their virtuosity. Celebrated pas de deux occur in Sleeping Beauty, Swan Lake, and Giselle.

Pasadena City (pop., 2000: wm 133,936), southwestern California,

!■ U.S., at the base of the San Gabriel

Mountains. Founded in 1874, it was tm incorporated as a city in 1886. It

grew as a winter resort and citrus centre after the construction of the Santa Fe Railway and the freeway system that link it to Los Angeles to the southwest. It is a centre of scien¬ tific research, based on the California Institute of Technology and its Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It is the site of the annual college football Rose Bowl and the New Year’s Day Tournament of Roses, a flower festival begun in 1890.

Pasadena City (pop., 2000: 141,674), southeastern Texas, U.S., east of Houston. Founded in 1895, it was incorporated in 1929. After World War II the city grew rapidly, stimulated by nearby industrial development, especially in petrochemicals and aerospace. Northeast of the city is the site of the 1836 capture of Mexican Gen. Antonio Santa Anna after the Battle of San Jacinto.

Pasargadae \po-'sar-g3-,de\ Ancient Persian city, near modern Shiraz, Iran. It was the capital of Cyrus II, founder of the Achaemenian dynasty. He was said to have founded the city on the site of his victory over the last king of the Medes (c. 550 bc). The city was surrendered to Alexander the

Great in 330 bc. It was known for the majestic simplicity of its architec¬ ture; its ruins include the bases of several large buildings and the nearly intact tomb of Cyrus.

Pascal \pas-'kal\ Computer programming language named for Blaise Pas¬ cal and based partly on ALGOL. It was developed by Niklaus Wirth of Zurich’s Federal Institute of Technology in the late 1960s as an educa¬ tional tool for systematic teaching of programming, with fast, reliable compilers. It was made available to the public in 1974 and was used by many universities for the next 15 years. Pascal strongly influenced lan¬ guages developed later, such as Ada. Complex data structures and algo¬ rithms can be described concisely by Pascal, and its programs are easy to read and debug.

pascal Unit of pressure, abbreviated Pa, in the International System of Units. Named for Blaise Pascal, the unit is a pressure of one newton per square meter (1 N/m 2 ). It is inconveniently small for many purposes, and the kilopascal (kPa), 1,000 N/m 2 , is more commonly used in engineering work (1 lb per sq in. equals 6.895 kPa).

Pascal \pas-'kal\, Blaise (b. June 19, 1623, Clermont-Ferrand, France—d. Aug. 19, 1662, Paris) French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher. The son of a mathematician, he was a child prodigy, earning the envy of Rene Descartes with an essay he wrote on conic sec¬ tions in 1640. In the 1640s and ’50s he made contributions to physics (formulating Pascal's law) and mathematics (working on the arithmetic triangle, inventing a calculating machine, and contributing to the advance of differential calculus). For work done in his early years, he is regarded as the founder of the modern theory of probability. At the same time, he became increasingly involved with Jansenism. Les Provinciales were a series of letters defending Jansenism and attacking the Jesuits. His great work of Christian apologetics, Apologie de la religion chretienne, was never finished, but he put together most of his notes and fragments between 1657 and 1658; these were published posthumously as Pensees (1670). He returned to scientific work, contributing to the Elements de geometrie and publishing his findings on cycloid curves, but he soon returned to devotional life and spent his last years helping the poor. The pascal was named in his honour. See also Pascal's wager.

Pascal's law or Pascal's principle In fluid mechanics, the statement that in a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container. The principle was first stated by Blaise Pascal, who also discovered that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions, and that the pressure would be the same on all planes passing through a specific point.

Pascal's wager Practical argument for belief in God formulated by Blaise Pascal. In his Pensees (1657-58), Pascal posed the following argu¬ ment to show that belief in the Christian religion is rational: If the Chris¬ tian God does not exist, the agnostic loses little by believing in him and gains correspondingly little by not believing. If the Christian God does exist, the agnostic gains eternal life by believing in him and loses an infi¬ nite good by not believing. William James objected to the argument that it supported belief in any religion that promised an eternal afterlife. Others have objected that though the argument does give one a reason for believ¬ ing in the Christian God, it does not make that belief “rational” in the proper sense.

Paschal \pas-'kal\ II orig. Raniero (b. Bieda di Galeata, near Ravenna—d. Jan. 21, 1118) Pope (1099-1118). He fostered the First Cru¬ sade and favoured Gregorian reforms, but his pontificate was dominated by the Investiture Controversy. Paschal came to terms on the issue of lay investiture with Henry I of England and Philip I of France (1107). His negotiations with Emperors Henry IV and Henry V were unsuccessful, and he was imprisoned by Henry V (1111). While a prisoner, he agreed to royal investiture of bishops and crowned Henry emperor, but a church council declared his concessions invalid, and the archbishop of Vienne excommunicated the emperor.

Pascin \pas-'ka n \, Jules orig. Julius Pincas (b. March 31, 1885, Vidin, Bulg.—d. June 1, 1930, Paris, France) Bulgarian painter. He trav¬ eled widely and lived in Austria and Germany, producing drawings for satirical journals, before moving to Paris in 1905. He moved to New York City during World War I and became a U.S. citizen but returned to Paris in 1920 and became associated with other Jewish artists, including Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modiguani, and Chaim Soutine. His most notable works

Parvati, bronze image, early Cola period, 10th century ad; in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

COURTESY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FREER GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Pashtun ► Passover I 1455

are thinly painted, delicately toned, ironic studies of women; he also painted portraits and a series of large-scale biblical and mythological scenes. Though financially successful, he was emotionally unstable; he hanged himself at 45.

Pashtun \,pash-'tun\ Any member of a Pashto-speaking people of south¬ eastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. The Pashtun, who num¬ ber about 7.5 million in Afghanistan and 14 million in Pakistan, constitute the majority of the population of Afghanistan. Their origins are unclear: Pashtun tradition asserts that they are descended from Afghana, grandson of King Saul of Israel, but most scholars believe that they arose from an intermingling of ancient Aryans from the north or west with subsequent invaders. Each Pashtun tribe is divided into clans, subclans, and patriar¬ chal families. Disputes among the Pashtun over property, women, and personal injury often result in blood feuds between families and whole clans. Most tribal people are sedentary farmers; some are migratory herd¬ ers and caravaners. Large numbers of the Pashtun have always been attracted to military service.

Pasic Vpa-shet y ,\ English Vpa-shichX, Nikola (b. Dec. 31, 1845, Zaje- car, Serbia—d. Dec. 10, 1926, Bel¬ grade) Serbian and Yugoslav statesman. The editor of a socialist newspaper in Serbia, he was elected in 1878 to the legislature, where he opposed the authoritarian monarchy and advocated a parliamentary democracy. In 1881 he helped found the Radical Party, but he was forced to flee to Bulgaria in 1883. Returning to Serbia in 1889 under a new king, he served as premier (1891-92) and as ambassador to Russia (1893-94).

Forced into exile again because of his political radicalism (1899-1903), he returned to support the Karadjordjevic dynasty and King Peter I. As leader of the Radical Party, he served as pre¬ mier of Serbia during most of the period (1904-18), then helped create the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). As premier (1921-26), he pushed for a unitary constitution that confirmed Serbia’s dominance despite opposition from the historically separate regions.

Pasionaria, La See Dolores Ibarruri

Pasolini X.pa-so-'le-neV, Pier Paolo (b. March 5, 1922, Bologna, Italy—d. Nov. 2, 1975, Ostia, near Rome) Italian film director, poet, and novelist. He wrote novels about Rome’s slum life as well as a significant body of poetry. Pasolini became a screenwriter in the mid-1950s, collabo¬ rating most notably on Federico Fellini’s Nights of Cabiria (1956). His directorial debut, Accattone (1961), was based on his novel A Violent Life (1959). His best-known film, stylistically unorthodox and implicitly radi¬ cal, is perhaps The Gospel According to Saint Matthew (1964). Later films include Oedipus Rex (1967), Teorema (1968), Medea (1969), The Can¬ terbury Tales (1972), and The Arabian Nights (1974), which won a spe¬ cial jury prize at Cannes. His use of eroticism, violence, and depravity were criticized by Italian religious authorities.

pasqueflower See anemone

passage, rite of Any of numerous ceremonial events, existing in all societies, that mark the passage of an individual from one social or reli¬ gious status to another. The term was coined by the French anthropolo¬ gist Arnold van Gennep (1873-1957) in 1909. Many of the most important rites are connected with the biological stages of life—birth, maturity, reproduction, and death. Other rites celebrate changes that are wholly cultural, such as initiation into special societies. In modem societies, graduation from school is a rite of passage. Scholars often interpret rites of passage as mechanisms by which society confronts and incorporates change without disrupting the equilibrium necessary to social order. See also SECRET SOCIETY.

Passamaquoddy Bay Inlet of the Bay of Fundy, between southwest¬ ern New Brunswick, Canada, and southeastern Maine, U.S., at the mouth of the St. Croix River. Deer Island and Campobello Island are in its southern part. It has an immense tidal flow, with about 70 billion cu ft (2 billion cu m) entering and leaving twice daily on the turn of the tide.

passenger pigeon Extinct species ( Ectopistes migratorius ) of pigeon (subfamily Columbinae, family Columbidae). Passenger pigeons were about 13 in. (32 cm) long and had a long pointed tail; the male was pinkish, with a blue-gray head. Bil¬ lions inhabited eastern North America in the early 19th century; migrating flocks darkened the skies for days at a time. Gunners began to slaughter them in huge numbers for shipping by railway carloads for sale in city meat markets. Martha, the last known passenger pigeon, died in 1914 in the Cincinnati Zoo. The bird’s extinction was largely respon¬ sible for ending the marketing of game birds and gave major impetus to the conservation movement.

passerine Any perching bird. All passerines belong to the largest order of birds, Passeriformes, and have feet specialized for holding onto a horizontal branch (perching). The pas¬ serine foot has three forward-directed toes and one backward-directed toe. Most passerines have moderately curved, sharp claws. Some ground¬ dwelling species (e.g., larks, pipits) have flatter, longer feet. Species that spend much time airborne (e.g., swallows) have small, weak feet. Species that cling and climb (e.g., nuthatches) have strong, sharp, curved claws. Passerines include about 4,000 species of oscines (songbirds; suborder Passere, or Oscines) and 1,100 species of suboscines (suborders Eury- laimi, called broadbills; Tyranni, including flycatchers; and Menurae, including lyrebirds). Suboscines lack the syrinx of the songbirds or have only a poorly developed one, but some can utter complex vocalizations. All passerines are land birds, abundant worldwide except in Antarctica. Most are insectivorous, solitary nesters that build a cup-shaped open nest.

Passion Musical setting of the suffering and crucifixion of Christ. The early Passion consisted entirely of plainchant. Liturgical enactments of Christ’s Passion date from the early Middle Ages, the characters’ parts being sung by individual celebrants and the crowd’s role by the congre¬ gation. Polyphonic Passions began appearing in the 15th century. In the German tradition exemplified by Heinrich Schutz, the Passion closely resembles the dramatic oratorio, with solo arias and other ensembles contrasting with choral sections; the alternative MOTET-style Passion lacked solo sections and avoided dramatic oppositions. After the 18th century, Passions ceased to be widely composed.

Passion play Religious drama of medieval origin dealing with the suf¬ fering, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Early Passion plays were written in Latin and consisted of Gospel readings alternating with poetic descrip¬ tions of the events of Christ’s Passion (i.e., his sufferings between the Last Supper and his death). Use of the vernacular for these poetic pas¬ sages led to the development of independent vernacular plays. By the 16th century many of the plays had been overtaken by secular influences and had become mere popular entertainments. Some survived into the 21st century, most notably the one performed by local villagers every 10 years at Oberammergau, Ger. See also liturgical drama; miracle play; mystery play.

passionflower family Family Passifloraceae, composed of about 600 species of herbaceous or woody vines, shrubs, and trees in 20 gen¬ era. Members of this family grow mostly in warm regions. Many species produce edible fruits. Members of the largest genus, Passiflora, are highly prized for their showy, unusual flowers. A pedestal-like structure in the centre of the flower carries the reproductive parts of both sexes. The pas¬ sionflower blossom is often used to symbolize events in the last hours (Passion) of Jesus, which accounts for the name of the group.

passive resistance See civil disobedience, satyagraha

Passover In Judaism, the holiday commemorating the liberation of the Hebrews from slavery in Egypt. Before sending a plague to destroy the firstborn of the Egyptians, God instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to place a special mark above their doors as a signal for the angel of death to pass over (i.e., spare the residents). The festival of Passover begins on the 15th and ends on the 22nd (in Israel, the 21st) day of the month of Nisan (March or April). During Passover only unleavened bread may be

Pasic.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

Passenger pigeon, mounted (Ectopistes migratorius)

BILL REASONS-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

1456 I passport ► Patarine

eaten, symbolizing the Hebrews’ suffering in bondage and the haste with which they left Egypt. On the first night of Passover, a Seder is held, and the Haggadah is read aloud.

passport Document issued by a national government identifying a trav¬ eler as a citizen with a right to protection while abroad and a right to return to the country of citizenship. It is normally a small booklet con¬ taining a description and photograph of the bearer. Most nations require entering travelers to obtain a visa, an endorsement on the passport show¬ ing that the proper authorities have examined it and permitting the bearer to enter the country and remain for a specified period.

pasta Any of several starchy food pastes (pasta alimentaria ) made from semolina, the purified middlings (endosperm) of a hard wheat called durum. Pasta is traditionally associated with Italian cuisine, though it may have entered Europe from Asia during the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. In making pasta, semolina dough is rolled out and sliced or com¬ pacted and forced through perforated plates (dies) that form it into the desired shape. It is produced in the form of sheets, ribbons, cords, tubes, and other shapes, each with its own name (e.g., spaghetti, macaroni). The formed dough is then dried under controlled conditions. Pasta is boiled and topped with a sauce or combined with other foods before serving.

pastel Drawing medium consisting of fragile, finger-size crayons called pastels, made of powdered pigments combined with a minimum of non- greasy binder (usually gum tragacanth or, from the mid-20th century, methyl cellulose). Because pigment applied with pastel does not change in colour value, the final effect can be seen immediately. Pastel remains on the surface of the paper and thus can be easily obliterated unless pro¬ tected by glass or a fixative spray of glue size or gum solution. When pastel is applied in short strokes or linearly, it is usually classed as draw¬ ing; when it is rubbed, smeared, and blended to achieve painterly effects, it is often regarded as a painting medium.

Pasternak, Boris (Leonidovich) (b. Feb. 10, 1890, Moscow, Russia—d. May 30, 1960, Peredelkino, near Moscow) Russian poet and prose writer. He studied music and philosophy and after the Russian Revo¬ lution of 1917 worked in the library of the Soviet commissariat of educa¬ tion. His early poetry, though avant-garde, was successful, but in the 1930s a gap widened between his work and officially approved literary modes, and he supported himself by doing translations. The novel Doctor Zhivago (1957; film, 1965), an epic of wandering, spiritual isolation, and love amid the harshness of the revolution and its aftermath, was a best-seller in the West but until 1987 circulated only in secrecy in the Soviet Union. Paster¬ nak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958, but he was forced to decline it because of Soviet opposition to his work.

Pasteur \pas-'t9r\, Louis (b. Dec. 27, 1822, Dole, France—d. Sept. 28, 1895, Saint-Cloud, near Paris) French chemist and microbiologist. Early in his career, after studies at the Ecole Normale Superieure, he researched the effects of polarized light on chemical compounds. In 1857 he became director of scientific studies at the Ecole. His studies of fermentation of alcohol and milk (souring) showed that yeast could reproduce without free oxygen (the Pasteur effect); he deduced that fermentation and food spoil¬ age were due to the activity of microorganisms and could be prevented by excluding or destroying them. His work overturned the concept of spontaneous generation (life arising from nonliving matter) and led to heat pasteurization, allowing vinegar, wine, and beer to be produced and trans¬ ported without spoiling. He saved the French silk industry by his work on silkworm diseases. In 1881 he perfected a way to isolate and weaken germs, and he went on to develop vaccines against anthrax in sheep and cholera in chickens, following Edward Jenner’s example. He turned his attention to researching rabies, and in 1885 his inoculating with a weak¬ ened virus saved the life of a boy bitten by a rabid dog. In 1888 he founded the Pasteur Institute for rabies research, prevention, and treatment.

Pasteurella X.pas-chs-'rel-oV Genus (named after Louis Pasteur) of rod¬ shaped bacteria that cause several serious diseases in domestic animals and milder infections in humans. Members are gram-negative (see gram stain), do not move, and do not require oxygen. The widespread infections they cause, referred to by the general term pasteurelloses, are transmitted by direct contact and, in some cases, by ticks and fleas. Control by vaccine is variable, as is treatment with penicillin and other antibiotics.

pasteurization Partial sterilization of a substance, especially milk or other beverages, by using heat to destroy microorganisms while leaving its chemical makeup unaltered. The process is named for Louis Pasteur, its

originator. Pasteurization of milk requires temperatures of about 145 °F (63 °C) for about 30 minutes, or higher temperatures for shorter periods. The treatment destroys any disease-causing organisms (principally Myco¬ bacterium tuberculosis ) as well as organisms that cause spoilage. See also FOOD PRESERVATION.

Pastor, Tony orig. Antonio Pastor (b. May 28, 1837, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 26, 1908, Elm¬ hurst, N.Y.) U.S. impresario and comic singer. He appeared at P.T.

Barnum’s American Museum as a child prodigy and first performed in a variety show in 1861. After man¬ aging a series of New York City the¬ atres, he opened the Fourteenth Street Theatre in 1881. Though vari¬ ety shows of the time featured coarse humour and were considered unsuit¬ able for ladies, he advertised his the¬ atre as “the first specialty and vaudeville theatre of America, cater¬ ing to polite tastes.” His unexpected success spurred other theatre manag¬ ers to follow suit and led to the cre¬ ation of vaudeville. See also music hall

AND VARIETY THEATRE.

pastoral \,pas-t3-'ral\ Literary T on y Pastor work dealing in a usually artificial culver pictures manner with shepherds or rural life,

typically contrasting the innocence and serenity of the simple life with the misery and corruption of city or court life. The characters are often the vehicles for the author’s moral, social, or literary views. The poet and his friends are often presented as shepherds and shepherdesses; two or more shepherds sometimes contend in “singing matches.” The conven¬ tions of pastoral poetry were largely established by Theocritus, whose bucolics are its earliest examples. Virgil’s Eclogues were influential as well, as was Edmund Spenser’s Shepheardes Calender in the Renaissance. The idea of pastoral as meaning a simpler world that somehow mirrors a more complex one also appears in novelists as different as Fyodor Dos¬ toyevsky, Lewis Carroll, and William Faulkner. See also eclogue.

Pastoureaux \,pas-t6r-'6\ (French: “shepherds”) Participants in two outbreaks of mob violence in medieval France. The first Pastoureaux were peasants in northeastern France aroused by news in 1251 of the reverses suffered by King Louis IX while on his Crusade. Accusing the nobles, clergy, and bourgeoisie of indifference to the king’s fate, they began pil¬ laging churches and towns and attacking clerics, the rich, and Jews. The second Pastoureaux converged on Paris in 1320 to punish Philip V for failing to undertake a Crusade he had called. They sacked the city, opened the prisons, and marched into the countryside, where they carried out pogroms against Jews and lepers before being suppressed.

Pasupata Vpa-shu-.po-to, .pa-shu-'ps-toN Early Hindu sect that wor¬ shiped Shiva as the supreme deity. Numerous subsects flourished in north¬ ern and northwestern India until at least the 12th century and spread to Java and Cambodia. Pasupata teachings were believed to have originated with Shiva himself, reincarnated as the teacher Lakulin. The sect’s rise is dated roughly between the 2nd century bc and the 2nd century ad. The ascetic practices adopted by the Pasupatas included smearing their bod¬ ies thrice-daily with ashes. Out of Pasupata doctrine developed two extreme schools, Kapauka and Kalamukha, as well as one moderate sect, Shaivism.

Patagonia Semiarid scrub plateau, southern Argentina. It is the larg¬ est desert region in the Americas, with an area of about 260,000 sq mi (673,000 sq km). Its approximate boundaries are the Colorado River in the north, the Atlantic Ocean in the east, the Strait of Magellan in the south, and the Andes Mountains in the west. A region of vast and virtu¬ ally treeless plains, it has a variety of wildlife, including llamas, pumas, and eagles. Natural resources include petroleum, iron ore, copper, ura¬ nium, and manganese.

Patarine or Patarene Vpa-t3-ren\ Member of a group of craftsmen, tradesmen, and peasants, as well as some members of the clergy, that appeared in Milan c. 1058 to call for reform of the church. Named for the Pataria, the ragpickers’ quarter of Milan where they assembled, the Patar-

patch test ► patio process I 1457

ines attacked simony and clerical concubinage and marriage and opposed the clergy’s moral corruption. They also encouraged greater participation by the laity in religious life and drew support from the Gregorian Reform popes, including Alexander II and Gregory VII. The Patarines formed part of the broader movement for church reform in the 11th century, and the resignation of their rival, the archbishop of Milan, led to a schism in the city that would help bring about the Investiture Controversy. In the later 12th century, the name Patarine was used as a general label for all her¬ etics, particularly the Cathari.

patch test Controlled application of biological or chemical substances to the skin to test for allergy. Small amounts of diluted test substances applied under a patch of cloth or soft paper and an impermeable mem¬ brane are left in place for 48 hours, and the skin reaction is then exam¬ ined and scored from 0 (none) to 4+ (severe blistering and redness).

Patel \p3-'tal\, Vallabhbhai (Jhaverbhai) known as Sardar Patel (b. Oct. 31, 1875, Nadiad, Gujarat, India—d. Dec. 15, 1950, Bom¬ bay) Indian statesman. Educated in India, he set up his own law office in 1900 and later studied law in Britain; he did not become involved in poli¬ tics until 1917. Like Mohandas K. Gandhi (and unlike Jawaharlal Nehru), he advocated dominion status within the British Commonwealth rather than independence for India. He opposed armed struggle on practical rather than moral grounds, and he was not interested in Hindu-Muslim unity. Patel was repeatedly a candidate for the presidency of the Indian National Congress, but his uncompromising attitude toward the Indian Muslims cost him Gandhi’s support and, ultimately, the presidency. After Indian independence (1947), he held several cabinet positions. He is remembered for achieving the peaceful integration of the princely Indian states into the Indian union and the political unification of India.

Patenier, Joachim de See Joachim Patinir

patent Government grant to an inventor of the exclusive right to make, use, or sell an invention, usually for a specified term. It may be granted for a process or method that is new, useful, and not obvious, or for a new use of a known process, machine, or composition of matter or material, including asexually reproduced plants and genetically engineered organ¬ isms. It may also be granted for any new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture. The first recorded patent for an industrial invention was granted in 1421 in Florence to the architect and engineer Filippo Brunelleschi. Until recently there were wide variations in the patent systems implemented by different countries. The duration of patents rec¬ ognized generally ranged from 16 to 20 years. In some countries (e.g., France), some patents were given shorter terms because the inventions had an overall general usefulness. In communist countries (e.g., the Soviet Union), patents per se were not recognized; instead, certificates were issued to inventors to ensure that they received some form of compensa¬ tion for their work. The agreement establishing the World Trade Organi¬ zation in the 1990s specifies a minimum set of exclusive rights that all patentees must be accorded and mandates a minimum patent term of 20 years from the date an application is filed. Patents are considered personal property and may be sold, assigned, or otherwise transferred.

Pater Vpa-torV, Walter (Horatio) (b. Aug. 4, 1839, Shadwell, Lon¬ don, Eng.—d. July 30, 1894, Oxford, Oxfordshire) English critic, essay¬ ist, and humanist. Elected a fellow at the University of Oxford in 1864, Pater made his reputation as a scholar and aesthete with essays collected in Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873). Written in a delicate, fastidious style, the essays introduced his influential advocacy of “art for art’s sake,” which contrasted with the prevailing emphasis on art’s moral or educational values and became a cardinal doctrine of Aestheticism. Mar¬ ius the Epicurean (1885), a philosophical romance on the ideal life, is his most substantial work.

Paterson City (pop., 2000: 149,222), northeastern New Jersey, U.S. It is located on the Passaic River, north of Newark, N.J. It was founded in 1791 as an industrial settlement by advocates of U.S. industrial indepen¬ dence from Europe. The successful enterprise, begun by Alexander Hamil¬ ton, was known as the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures. In the 19th century it was a centre of cotton textile production, the silk industry, and locomotive manufacturing. It received a city charter in 1851 and was the scene of many labour disputes. By the 20th century its indus¬ tries were widely diversified.

Paterson, William (b. Dec. 24, 1745, County Antrim, Ire.—d. Sept. 9, 1806, Albany, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. jurist. He immigrated with

his family to New Jersey in 1747. He was the state’s attorney general from 1776 to 1783. At the Constitutional Convention he played a leading role in the opposition of the small states to representation according to population in the federal legislature, submitting the New Jersey (or small- state) Plan, which called for an equal vote for all states, to counter the Virginia (or large-state) Plan, which favoured larger states. He secured ratification of the Constitution of the United States in New Jersey and was elected one of the state’s first U.S. senators (1789-90). He served as gov¬ ernor of New Jersey from 1790 to 1793 and as a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1793 to 1806.

Pa than See Pashtun

Pathe \pa-'ta,\ English \pa-'tha\, Charles (b. Dec. 25, 1863, Paris, France—d. Dec. 26, 1957, Monte-Carlo, Mon.) French film executive. In 1896 he and his brother Emile founded Pathe Freres, which distributed Thomas Alva Edison’s Kinetoscope viewing device to French theatres. The firm entered film production using the camera developed by the Lumiere brothers. Pathe Freres filmed numerous short subjects, the majority of which are sensational criminal adventures, melodramatic love stories, and comic anecdotes. In 1909 Pathe produced his first “long film,” Les Mis- erables, a four-reel screen version of the novel by Victor Hugo, and launched the Pathe Gazette , an internationally popular newsreel that ran until 1956. In 1914 Pathe Freres released the first episodes of The Perils of Pauline, one of the earliest screen serials. With facilities throughout the world, Pathe Freres dominated the film market in the early 20th century, and it remained a film distributor after Charles’s retirement in 1929.

pathology Medical specialty dealing with causes of disease and struc¬ tural and functional changes in abnormal conditions. As autopsies, initially prohibited for religious reasons, became more accepted in the late Middle Ages, people learned more about the causes of death. In 1761 Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771) published the first book to locate disease in individual organs. In the mid-19th century the humoral theories of infection were replaced first by cell-based theories (see Rudolf Virchow) and then by the bacteriologic theories of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur. Today pathologists work mostly in the laboratory and consult with a patient’s physician after examining specimens including surgically removed body parts, blood and other fluids, urine, feces, and discharges. Culturing of infectious organisms, staining, fibre-optic endoscopy, and electron microscopy have greatly expanded the information available to the pathologist.

patina See desert varnish

Patinir X.pa-to-'nhA, Joachim (de) or Joachim de Patinier or Joachim de Patenier \,pa-t9-'ner\ (b. c. 1485, Bouvignes, Namur—d. Oct. 5, 1524, Antwerp) Netherlandish painter. Nothing is known of his early life, but his work reflects knowledge of the paintings of Gerard David. He is the first Western artist known to have specialized in land¬ scape painting, though his work has a nominal religious subject and he never painted pure landscapes. His novelty lay in the fact that the reli¬ gious motif in such works as Flight into Egypt (1515-20) was overshad¬ owed by the phenomena of the natural world. He apparently made a practice of supplying landscape settings for figure compositions painted by other Flemish masters. His landscapes combine realistic detail with a sense of fantasy that suggests his familiarity with the works of Hierony¬ mus Bosch.

patio In Spanish and Latin American architecture, a courtyard open to the sky within a building. A Spanish development of the Roman atrium, it is comparable to the Italian cortile but provides more seclusion, possibly due to Moorish custom. The patio of the contemporary U.S. house is a paved outdoor area adjoining or partially enclosed by the building and often used for outdoor dining.

patio process or Mexican process Method of isolating silver from its ORE, apparently dating from pre-Columbian times. The ore was crushed and ground by mule power in arrastras, reducing it to a fine mud. This was then spread over a courtyard or patio, sprinkled with mercury, salt, and copper sulfate, and mixed by driving mules over it. Chemical reac¬ tions caused the silver to dissolve in the mercury. When the amalgam¬ ation was complete, the material was agitated with water in large tubs and the mud run off. The amalgam at the bottom was collected and heated to drive off the mercury. Used for much of the world’s silver production for 350 years, the process was replaced by the cyanide process early in the 20th century.

1458 I Patna ► Paul III

Patna Vpot-noV City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,376,950), capital of Bihar state, northeastern India, on the Ganges River. It was founded in the 5th century bc as Pataliputra and was the capital of Magadha until the 1st century bc. It was ruled later by the Mauryan empire. A centre of learning, it became the Gupta dynasty’s capital in the 4th century ad but declined and was deserted by the 7th century. Revived as Patna in 1541 by an Afghan ruler, it became prosperous under the Mughal dynasty and passed to the British in 1765. Extensive archaeological excavations have been made in its vicinity.

Paton, Alan (Stewart) (b. Jan. 11, 1903, Pietermaritzburg, Natal, S.Af.—d. April 12, 1988, near Dur¬ ban) South African writer and politi¬ cal activist. While principal of a reformatory housing black youths,

Paton introduced controversial pro¬ gressive reforms and wrote his best- known work, the novel Cry, the Beloved Country (1948), focusing international attention on the issue of apartheid. To offer a nonracial alter¬ native to apartheid, he helped found the Liberal Party of South Africa in 1953 and led the organization until it was banned in 1968. His other works include the novel Too Late the Phalarope (1953) and the biogra¬ phies Hofmeyr (1964) and Apartheid and the Archbishop (1973).

patria potestas Vpa-tre-o- po-'tes-.tasV Latin "power of the father" In Roman family law, the power that the male head of a family {paterfamilias ) exercised over his descendants in the male line and over adopted children. Originally this power was absolute and included the power of life and death; a paterfa¬ milias could acknowledge, banish, kill, or disown a child. He could free his male descendants from this obligation or turn over his daughter and all her inheritance to the power of her husband. By the end of the repub¬ lic (from about the 1st century bc), a father could inflict only light pun¬ ishment and his sons could keep what they earned.

patriarch Title applied to Old Testament leaders such as Methuselah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It was once given also to some Roman Catho¬ lic bishops who wielded great authority. It is still used in Eastern Ortho¬ doxy, which now has nine patriarchates: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Moscow, Georgia, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria.

patrician In ancient Rome, any member of a group of citizen families who, in contrast to the plebeians, formed a privileged nobility. They attempted to hold on to magistracies, priesthoods, and legal and religious knowledge, and the great civil struggle of the Roman republic was the effort of the plebeians to achieve equality and break the patrician monopoly. Gradually the patricians lost their monopoly—except in a few areas, such as selected priesthoods and the office of interrex—and in the late repub¬ lic (1st century bc) the distinction lost political importance. After 27 bc, patrician rank was necessary for ascent to the imperial throne. After Con¬ stantine’s reign (ad 337), the term became an honorary title with no par¬ ticular power.

Patrick, Saint (fl. 5th century; feast day March 17) Patron saint of Ire¬ land. Born in Britain of a Romanized family, he was captured at age 16 by Irish raiders and carried into slavery in Ireland. He spent six years as a herdsman before escaping from his master and being reunited with his family in Britain. Called in a dream to bring Christianity to the Irish, he returned to Ireland and journeyed far and wide, baptizing chiefs and kings and converting whole clans. One popular legend says that he explained the notion of the Holy Trinity using the shamrock, now the national flower of Ireland. He is also said to have rid Ireland of snakes.

patristic literature Body of literature that comprises those works (excluding the New Testament) written by Christians before the 8th cen¬ tury. It refers to the works of the Church Fathers. Most patristic literature is in Greek or Latin, but much survives in Syriac and other Middle East¬ ern languages. The works of the Apostolic Fathers contain the earliest patristic literature. By the mid-2nd century, Christians wrote to justify their faith to the Roman government and to refute Gnosticism. In the 4th

and 5th centuries, Augustine of Hippo and others laid the foundation for much of medieval and modern Christian thought. Significant patristic authors include Justin Martyr, Origen, Tertullian, Eusebius of Caesarea, Athanasius, Basil the Great, St. Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom, Ambrose, Ephraem Syrus (3067-373), St. Jerome, The¬ odore of Mopsuestia, St. Cyril of Alexandria (c. 375^144), St. Maximus the Confessor (c. 580-662), and Pope Gregory I.

patron saint Saint to whose protection and intercession a person, soci¬ ety, church, place, profession, or activity is dedicated. The choice is usu¬ ally made on the basis of some real or presumed relationship (e.g., St. Patrick is the patron saint of Ireland because he is credited with introduc¬ ing Christianity there).

patronage system See spoils system

pattern recognition In computer science, the imposition of identity on input data, such as speech, images, or a stream of text, by the recog¬ nition and delineation of patterns it contains and their relationships. Stages in pattern recognition may involve measurement of the object to identify distinguishing attributes, extraction of features for the defining attributes, and comparison with known patterns to determine a match or mismatch. Pattern recognition has extensive application in astronomy, medicine, robotics, and remote sensing by satellites. See also speech recognition.

pattern making In materials processing, the first step in casting and molding processes, the making of an accurate model of the part, some¬ what oversize to allow for shrinkage of the cast material as it cools. Foundry workers then make a mold from the pattern, introduce the liquid into the mold, and remove the hardened part from the mold. The pro¬ cessing of materials in liquid form is commonly known as casting when it involves metals, glass, and ceramics; it is called molding when it involves plastics and some other nonmetallic materials. Patternmaking is a highly skilled trade learned by apprenticeship.

Patterson, Floyd (b. Jan. 4,1935, Waco, N.C., U.S.) U.S. boxer. Patter¬ son grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y. As a middleweight amateur fighter, he won the N.Y. Golden Gloves championship in 1951 and ’52 and won an Olym¬ pic gold medal in 1952. As a professional, he moved up to heavyweight and in 1956 succeeded Rocky Marciano as world heavyweight champion by knocking out Archie Moore. He lost the title to Ingemar Johansson in 1959, regained it in 1960 (becoming the first to hold the heavyweight champi¬ onship twice), and lost it again in 1962 to Sonny Liston.

Patton, George S(mith) (b. Nov. 11, 1885, San Gabriel, Calif., U.S.—d. Dec. 21, 1945, Heidelberg, Ger.) U.S. army officer. He gradu¬ ated from West Point and fought in World War I with the newly formed tank corps. He was later promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Armored Division (1940). In World War II he led military operations in Morocco (1942) and Sicily (1943) and then commanded the 3rd Army in its sweep across northern France (1944) into Germany (1945). His strategy of bold and highly mobile operations in tank warfare, coupled with his strict, highly disciplined leadership, earned him his troops’ respect and the nickname “Old Blood-and-Guts.” Criticized for striking a hospitalized soldier he suspected of malingering, he later pub¬ licly apologized. He died in a car crash in Germany. See also Battle of the Bulge.

Paul Russian Pavel Petrovich (b. Oct. 1, 1754, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. March 23, 1801, St. Petersburg) Tsar of Russia (1796-1801). He was the son of Peter III and Catherine II, whom he succeeded as emperor in 1796. He reversed many of Catherine’s policies, strengthened the autocracy, and established the law of succession within the male line of the Romanov dynasty. He provoked the hostility of the nobles and the army with his tyrannical rule and capricious foreign policy, which drew Russia into war with France. In a plot by the nobles to depose him and place his son Alexander (later Alexander I) on the throne, Paul was assassinated.

Paul III orig. Alessandro Farnese (b. Feb. 29, 1468, Canino, Papal States—d. Nov. 10, 1549, Rome) Pope (1534-49). The son of a noble Tuscan family, he was made a cardinal-deacon in 1493 and served as bishop in Parma and Ostia before being named dean of the College of Cardinals by Pope Leo X. Ordained a priest in 1519, he was unanimously elected pope in 1534. Though loose in morals in earlier years (he had three sons and a daughter), he became an efficient promoter of reform, convening the Council of Trent in 1545 and initiating the Counter- Reformation. He also supported the newly founded Jesuits and was a patron of the arts, the last in the tradition of the Renaissance popes.

Paul VI ► pavement I 1459

Paul VI orig. Giovanni Battista Montini (b. Sept. 26, 1897, Con- cesio, near Brescia, Italy—d. Aug. 6, 1978, Castel Gandolfo) Pope (1963— 78). Educated at Brescia and ordained in 1920, he continued his studies in Rome, earning degrees in civil and canon law. He was a church dip¬ lomat for much of his career, until he was named archbishop of Milan in 1954. He became a cardinal in 1958, and in 1963 he was elected pope. Paul VI presided over the final sessions of the Second Vatican Council and appointed commissions to carry out its reforms, including revisions in the mass. He also relaxed rules on fasting, removed a number of ques¬ tionable saints from the church’s calendar, and enforced conservative positions on birth control and clerical celibacy. He promoted ecumenism and was the first pope to travel widely, visiting Israel, India, Asia, and Latin America.

Paul, Les orig. Lester Polfus (b. June 9, 1915, Waukesha, Wis., U.S.) U.S. guitarist and inventor. He played many styles of popular music, ini¬ tially country but later jazz, and in the 1940s he was a sideman for Nat King Cole and Bing Crosby. He invented the first solid-body electric gui¬ tar and was instrumental in developing modern multitrack recording. His overdubbed, sped-up recordings from the late 1940s and early 1950s— including “Brazil” (1948), “Nola” (1950), and “How High the Moon” (1951), often with his wife, Mary Ford (1924-77) singing multiple har¬ mony parts—demonstrated the potential of tape. He continued to perform occasionally into his 80s.

Paul, Lewis (d. April 1759, Kensington, Middlesex, Eng.) British inventor. Working with John Wyatt from about 1730, he developed the first power spinning machine (see drawing frame), which they patented in 1738. It operated by drawing cotton or wool through pairs of successively faster rollers. It was eventually replaced by Richard Arkwright’s water frame. Paul also patented a carding machine in 1748.

Paul, Saint orig. Saul (b. ad 10?, Tarsus in Cilicia—d. 67?, Rome) Early Christian missionary and theologian, known as the Apostle to the Gentiles. Born a Jew in Tarsus, Asia Minor, he was trained as a rabbi but earned his living as a tentmaker. A zealous Pharisee, he persecuted the first Christians until a vision of Jesus, experienced while on the road to Dam¬ ascus, converted him to Christianity. Three years later he met St. Peter and Jesus’ brother James and was henceforth recognized as the 13th Apostle. From his base in Antioch, he traveled widely, preaching to the Gentiles. By asserting that non-Jewish disciples of Christ did not have to observe Jewish law, he helped to establish Christianity as a separate reli¬ gion rather than a Jewish sect. On a journey to Jerusalem, he aroused such hostility among the Jews that a mob gathered, and he was arrested and imprisoned for two years. The circumstances of his death are unknown. Paul’s ministry and religious views are known largely from his letters, or epistles, collected in the New Testament, which are the first Christian theo¬ logical writing and the source of much Christian doctrine. It was due to Paul more than anyone else that Christianity became a world religion.

Pauli, Wolfgang (b. April 25, 1900, Vienna, Austria—d. Dec. 15, 1958, Zurich, Switz.) Austrian-born U.S. physicist. At the age of 20, he wrote a 200-page encyclopaedia article on the theory of relativity. He taught physics in Zurich (1928-40) and later at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J. In 1924 he proposed that a spin quantum num¬ ber, +Vi or -Vi, is necessary to specify electron energy states. In 1930 he proposed that the energy and momentum apparently lost when an elec¬ tron is emitted from an atomic nucleus in beta decay is carried away by an almost massless, uncharged, and difficult-to-detect particle (the neu¬ trino). He was awarded a 1945 Nobel Prize for his 1925 discovery of the Pauli exclusion principle.

Pauli exclusion principle Assertion proposed by Wolfgang Pauli that no two electrons in an atom can be in the same state or configuration at the same time. It accounts for the observed patterns of light emission from atoms. The principle has since been generalized to include the whole class of particles called fermions. The spin of such particles is always an odd whole-number multiple of Vi. For example, electrons have spin Vi, and can occupy two distinct states with opposite spin directions. The Pauli exclusion principle indicates, therefore, that only two electrons are allowed in each atomic energy state, leading to the successive buildup of orbitals around the nucleus. This prevents matter from collapsing to an extremely dense state.

Pauling, Linus (Carl) (b. Feb. 28, 1901, Portland, Ore., U.S.—d. Aug. 19, 1994, Big Sur, Calif.) U.S. chemist. He received his doctorate from the California Institute of Technology and became a professor there in

He was one of the first researchers to apply quantum mechanics to the study of molecular structures; to calculate interatomic distances and the angles between chemical bonds (see bonding), he effectively used X-ray diffraction, electron diffraction, magnetic effects, and the heat of reaction. His book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939) became one of the century’s most influential chem¬ istry texts. He was the first recipient of the American Chemical Society’s Langmuir Prize (1931) and later the first recipient of its Lewis medal (1951), and in 1954 he received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. In 1962 his efforts on behalf of control of nuclear weapons and against nuclear testing brought him the Nobel Peace Prize, making him the first recipient of two unshared Nobel Prizes. In later years he devoted himself to the study of the prevention and treatment of illness by taking high doses of vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C.

Paulus \'pau-l3s\, Friedrich (b. Sept. 23, 1890, Breitenau, Ger.—d. Feb. 1, 1957, Dresden, E.Ger.) German general in World War II. He became deputy chief of the German General Staff in World War II and commanded the German 6th Army in the Soviet Union. He was defeated in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, and the surrender of his army of 300,000 men ended Germany’s offensive in Russia. While a prisoner, Paulus agitated against Adolf Hitler among the other German prisoners of war and later testified at the NOrnberg trials. After his release from prison (1953), he settled in East Germany.

Pausanias \po-'sa-ne-9s\ (fl. ad 143-176) Greek traveler and geogra¬ pher. His Description of Greece is an invaluable guide to ancient ruins. He describes the religious art and architecture of Olympia and Delphi, the pictures and inscriptions at Athens, the statue of Athena on the Acropolis, and (outside the city) the monuments of famous men and of Athenians fallen in battle. According to James George Frazer, without Pausanias the ruins of Greece would be “a labyrinth without a clue, a riddle without an answer.”

pa vane \po-'van\ Stately court dance introduced from southern Europe into England in the 16th century. The dance, consisting of forward and backward steps to music in duple time, was originally used to open ceremonial balls; later its steps became livelier and it came to be paired with the quick galliard in triple time.

Pavarotti, Luciano (b. Oct. 12,

1935, Modena, Italy) Italian tenor.

He started out as a schoolteacher, beginning his vocal training only in his 20s. He made his professional debut in 1961, then debuted at La Scala in 1965 and at the Metropoli¬ tan Opera in 1968. He retained the beautiful tone and thrilling high notes that his audiences loved into his 60s, nurturing his broad appeal by recording many light pieces in addition to the traditional Italian rep¬ ertoire in which he specialized. The most famous male classical singer of the late 20th century, he came to personify the Italian tenor worldwide.

pavement Durable surfacing of a road, path, court, patio, plaza, air¬ strip, or other such area. The Romans, the greatest road builders of the ancient world, built their roads of stone and concrete. By ad 75 several methods of road construction were known in India, including brick and stone slab pavements, and street paving was common in towns. Smaller

.inus Pauling, photograph by Yousuf (arsh.

5 KARSH-RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Pavane, "The Dance in the Garden" illumination from the Roman de la rose, Toulouse, early 16th century; in the British Library (Harley MS 4425, fol.

14v)

REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF THE BRITISH LIBRARY

1460 I Pavese ► Paz Estenssoro

cobblestones began to be used for European paving in the late Middle Ages. The 18th—19th century saw the development of pavement systems (e.g., macadam) that used light road surfaces of broken or crushed stone. Modern flexible pavements contain sand and gravel or crushed stone com¬ pacted with a bituminous binder (e.g., asphalt or tar); such a pavement has enough plasticity to absorb shock. Rigid pavements are made of con¬ crete, composed of coarse and fine aggregate and portland cement, and usually reinforced with steel rod or mesh.

Pavese \pa-'va-sa\, Cesare (b. Sept. 9, 1908, Santo Stefano Belbo, Italy—d. Aug. 27, 1950, Turin) Italian poet, critic, novelist, and transla¬ tor. Pavese founded, and was long an editor with, the publishing house of Einaudi. Denied a creative outlet by fascist control of literature, he did translations in the 1930s and ’40s that introduced many modem U.S. and English writers to Italy. Much of his own work appeared between the end of World War II and his death by suicide at age 41; some was published posthumously. His best works include Dialogues with Leucd (1947), poetic conversations on the human condition; the novel The Moon and the Bonfire (1950); and the journal This Business of Living (1952).

Pavia \pa-'ve-o\ ancient Ticinum City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 71,074), Lombardy, northern Italy. Located on the Ticino River, the site was origi¬ nally a settlement of the Papiria tribe; it was conquered by Rome c. 220 bc. Pillaged by Attila and Odoacer in the 5th century ad, it became a cen¬ tre of Gothic resistance against the Byzantine Empire. Ruled by the Vis¬ conti family (see Gian Galeazzo Visconti) from c. 1359, it became a leading Italian city-state. In 1525 it was the scene of a decisive victory by the Holy Roman emperor Charles V over the French under Francis I, who was captured. It was active in the Risorgimento and joined the King¬ dom of Italy in 1859. It still retains the ancient plan of the Roman for¬ tified town, and medieval structures remain. The University of Pavia (founded 1361) is linked with the ancient law school, which dates to 825. Pavia is a centre of communications, agriculture, and industry.

Pavlov Vpav-.loA, Ivan (Petrovich) (b. Sept. 26, 1849, Ryazan, Russia—d. Feb. 27, 1936, Leningrad) Russian physiologist. He is known chiefly for the concept of the conditioned reflex. In his classic experiment, he found that a hungry dog trained to associate the sound of a bell with food salivated at the sound even in the absence of food. He expanded on Charles Sherrington’s explanation of the spinal reflex. He also tried to apply his laws to human psychoses and language function. His ability to reduce a complex situation to a simple experiment and his pioneering studies relating human behaviour to the nervous system laid the basis for the scientific analysis of behaviour. After the Russian Revolution, he became an outspoken opponent of the communist government. He won a 1904 Nobel Prize for his work on digestive secretions.

Pavlova Vpav-lo-voV Anna (Pavlovna) (b. Feb. 12, 1881, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Jan. 23,

_ 1931, The Hague, Neth.) Russian

ballet dancer. She studied at the wm Imperial Ballet School from 1891

and joined the Mariinsky Theatre com¬ pany in 1899, becoming prima bal- wm lerina in 1906. In 1913 she left

y Russia to tour with her own com¬

pany, which showcased her outstand¬ ing performances in classical ballets such as Giselle ; the most famous numbers were a succession of short solos such as The Dying Swan, cho¬ reographed for her by Michel Fokine.

Her tours took ballet to audiences in many countries for the first time and did much to popularize ballet world¬ wide.

pawnbroking Business of advancing loans to customers who have pledged household goods or personal belongings as security. The pawnbroker’s trade is one of the old¬ est known, having existed 2,000- 3,000 years ago in China, as well as in ancient Greece and Rome. Pawn¬ broking was common in medieval

Europe despite laws against usury. Private pawnbrokers were usually those exempt from the laws, notably the Jews. In 1462 the Franciscans set up the montes pietatis, which granted interest-free loans to the poor, though they were later forced to charge interest to prevent premature exhaustion of their funds. Public pawnshops existed briefly in the Middle Ages but were reestablished in the 18th century to free debtors from the high interest rates of private pawnshops. Most European countries now maintain public pawnshops; in the U.S. only private pawnshops exist. Social-welfare programs and increased access to easy credit has led to a decline in pawnbroking’s importance. See also interest, consumer credit, CREDIT CARD.

Pawnee \po-'ne\ North American Plains Indian people living mainly in Oklahoma, U.S. Their language belongs to the Caddoan language stock, and their name is derived from the Caddoan word meaning “horn,” a ref¬ erence to their unique hairstyle. They once lived along the Platte River in what is now Nebraska. The Pawnee tribe comprised four relatively independent bands, each divided into villages. They lived in large, dome¬ shaped, earth-covered lodges but used tepees on buffalo hunts. Women raised corn, squash, and beans, and they harvested a grain similar to wild rice. Chiefs, priests, and shamans constituted the dominant class. Pawnee religion centred on a variety of deities, including the supreme being Tirawa, the sun god, and morning and evening stars. The Pawnee had military societies, and many Pawnee served as scouts for the U.S. armies of the frontier. Pawnee lands were ceded to the U.S. in the mid-19th cen¬ tury, and most Pawnee were relocated to a reservation in Oklahoma. They number about 2,500.

pawpaw See papaw

Pax Romana Vpaks-ro-'ma-no, 'paks-ro-'ma-noV Latin "Roman Peace" State of comparative tranquility throughout the Mediterranean world from the reign of Augustus (27 bc-ad 14) to that of Marcus Aure¬ lius (ad 161-180). The concord also included North Africa and Persia. The empire protected and governed provinces, each of which legislated and administered its own laws while accepting Roman taxation and military control. It was the Pax Romana that ensured the survival and eventual transmission of the classical Greek and Roman heritage.

Paxton Boys uprising (1763) Attack by Pennsylvania frontiersmen on an Indian settlement during the Pontiac Indian uprising. After 57 drunken rangers from Paxton, Pa., slaughtered 20 innocent and defense¬ less Conestoga Indians near Lancaster, Pa., the colonial governor ordered the arrest of those involved. Because local residents were sympathetic to the “Paxton Boys,” no prosecutions were undertaken. Instead, angered by appropriations insufficient to defend the western frontier, more than 600 armed frontiersmen marched on Philadelphia in 1764. They were met by leading Philadelphians, including Benjamin Franklin, who promised the men a hearing.

payments, balance of See balance of payments

Payton, Walter (Jerry) (b. July 25, 1954, Columbia, Miss., U.S.—d. Nov. 1, 1999, Barrington, Ill.) U.S. football player. He played football at Jackson State University and from 1975 to 1987 was a member of the NFL Chicago Bears. He retired as the all-time leader for combined yard¬ age (rushing, kick returning, and pass receiving; 21,803 yds), seasons with 1,000 or more yards rushing (10), and rushing yardage (16,726). In 2002 his career rushing record was broken by Emmitt Smith and his combined yardage record was broken by Jerry Rice. Payton is considered among the greatest running backs in football history.

Paz \'pas\, Octavio (b. March 31, 1914, Mexico City, Mex.—d. April 19, 1998, Mexico City) Mexican poet, writer, and diplomat. Educated at the University of Mexico, Paz published his first book of poetry, Savage Moon, in 1933. He later founded and edited several important literary reviews. Influenced in turn by Marxism, Surrealism, existentialism, Bud¬ dhism, and Hinduism, his poetry uses rich imagery in dealing with meta¬ physical questions, and his most prominent theme is the human ability to overcome existential solitude through erotic love and artistic creativity. His prose works include The Labyrinth of Solitude (1950), an influential essay on Mexican history and culture. He was Mexico’s ambassador to India (1962-68). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1990.

Paz Estenssoro Vpas-.es-ten-'sor-cA, Victor (b. Oct. 2, 1907, Tarija, Bol.—d. June 7, 2001, Tarija) President of Bolivia (1952-56, 1960-64, 1985-89). Originally an economics professor, he was elected to the Cham¬ ber of Deputies and then became president in 1952, when the National

Paul conspiracy ► peacock I 1461

Revolutionary Movement (MNR), a left-wing organization that he helped found, seized power. He extended the vote to Indians, implemented agrar¬ ian reform, and expropriated three major tin companies. He was elected again in 1964 but was overthrown by a military coup the same year. He regained the presidency in 1985 and instituted a program of economic austerity that reduced the hyperinflation that had imperiled the Bolivian economy.

Pazzi conspiracy Vpat-se\ (April 16, 1478) Unsuccessful plot to over¬ throw the Medici rulers of Florence. It was led by the rival Pazzi family, with the backing of Pope Sixtus IV, who wanted to consolidate papal rule over northern central Italy. The conspirators tried to assassinate two Med¬ ici brothers during mass at the Cathedral of Florence; they killed Giuliano de’ Medici, but Lorenzo de’ Medici escaped. The people of Florence ral¬ lied to the Medici and killed many of the conspirators, leaving Lorenzo more powerful than before and setting off a two-year war with the papacy.

PBS in full Public Broadcasting Service Private, nonprofit U.S. corporation of public television stations. PBS provides its member sta¬ tions, which are supported by public funds and private contributions rather than by commercials, with educational, cultural, news, and children’s programs that are produced by its members and by independent produc¬ ers worldwide. Its popular programs have included Sesame Street, Mas¬ terpiece Theatre, Great Performances, NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, and Nova. PBS was founded in 1969 to coordinate and provide services to its member stations, which now number about 350. Funding is provided mainly by viewers’ contributions, state governments, and grants from businesses and private foundations; the U.S. government, through the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, supplies about 15%.

PC See PERSONAL COMPUTER

PCB in full polychlorinated biphenyl \bl-'fe-n 3 l, bi-'fe-n 3 l\ Any of a class of highly stable organic compounds prepared by the reaction of CHLORINE with biphenyl, a two-ring compound. The commercial product, a mix of several PCB isomers, is a colourless, viscous liquid that is almost insoluble in water, does not degrade under high temperatures, and is a good electrical insulator (see dielectric). PCBs became widely used as lubricants, heat-transfer fluids, and fire-resistant dielectric fluids in trans¬ formers and capacitors in the 1930s and ’40s. In the mid 1970s they were found to cause liver dysfunction in humans and came under suspicion as carcinogens; their manufacture and use were consequently restricted in the U.S. and many other countries, though illegal dumping by manufac¬ turers continued. They persist in the environment and have entered the food chain, causing great harm especially to invertebrates and fish.

pea Any of several species, comprising hundreds of varieties, of herba¬ ceous annual plants belonging to the family Leguminosae (or Fabaceae, also known as the pea family; see legume), grown virtually worldwide for their edible seeds. Pisum sativum is the common garden pea of the Western world, which Gregor Men¬ del used for his pioneering studies of heredity. While their origins have not been definitely determined, it is known that peas are one of the old¬ est cultivated crops. Some varieties, called sugar peas, snow peas, or mange-touts, have edible pods and are popular in East Asian cuisines.

See also sweet pea.

Peabody Vpe-bo-deX, Elizabeth (Palmer) (b. May 16, 1804, Billerica, Mass., U.S.—d. Jan. 3, 1894, Jamaica Plain, Mass.) U.S. educator and leader in the kindergarten move¬ ment in America. She served as secretary to William Ellery Channing (1825-34) and worked with Bronson Alcott in his Temple School. She opened a Boston bookshop in 1839, which became a centre for Transcen- dentalist activities. She published works by Margaret Fuller and Nathaniel Hawthorne and also published and wrote articles for The Dial. Inspired by the work of Friedrich Froebel, she opened the first English-language kin¬ dergarten in the U.S. in 1860 and thereafter devoted herself to organiz¬ ing public and private kindergartens. Her sisters married Horace Mann and Nathaniel Hawthorne.

Peabody Vpe-.ba-deX, George (b. Feb. 18, 1795, South Danvers [now Peabody], Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 4, 1869, London, Eng.) U.S. merchant and financier. Born in South Danvers, Mass, (renamed Peabody in his honour), he earned an early fortune as a partner in a wholesale dry-goods business and as president of the Eastern Railroad (from 1836). On a trip to England, he negotiated an $8 million loan for the near-bankrupt state of Maryland. In 1837 he moved to London permanently and founded a merchant banking house specializing in foreign exchange; his banking operations helped establish U.S. credit abroad. He spent most of his for¬ tune on philanthropy to promote education and the arts; his gifts include a natural history museum at Yale University, an archaeology museum at Harvard University, and an Asian export art museum in Salem, Mass.

Peace Corps U.S. government agency of volunteers, formed in 1961 by Pres. John F. Kennedy. Its purpose is to assist other countries in their development efforts by providing skilled workers in the fields of educa¬ tion, agriculture, health, trade, technology, and community development. Volunteers are expected to serve for two years as good neighbours in the host country, to speak its language, and to live on a level comparable to that of the local residents. By the early 21st century, more than 165,000 volunteers had served in the corps.

Peace of God Movement within the medieval Roman Catholic church in response to the breakdown of public order. The movement began at a council at Le Puy in 975, but other, more important councils occured in southern and central France in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. Regional lay and religious authorities attended the councils to ensure God’s peace, and they were often joined by large crowds who came to venerate the relics displayed at the meetings. The peace decrees forbade, under pain of excommunication, private warfare or violence against churches, clerics, pilgrims, merchants, women, peasants, and cattle. Par¬ ticipants at the councils took oaths on sacred relics to uphold the deci¬ sions made at those councils. The peace was also decreed at the councils of Charoux (c. 989), Limoges (994 and 1031), Poitiers (c. 1000), and Bourges (1038).

peace pipe See calumet

Peace River River, western Canada. Formed by the confluence of the Finlay and Parsnip rivers in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia, it flows east across the border of Alberta to join the Slave River just north of its outlet from Lake Athabasca. It is 1,195 mi (1,923 km) long. It was explored by Alexander Mackenzie in 1792-93 and became a major fur¬ trading route. It is an important source of hydroelectric power.

Peace River River, west-central Florida, U.S. It rises in Polk county and flows south and southwest into Charlotte Harbor on the southwest¬ ern coast. It is about 85 mi (135 km) long.

peach Small to medium-sized fruit tree ( Prunus persica) of the rose family, grown throughout the warmer temperate regions of both hemispheres, and the fruit it pro¬ duces. It probably originated in China and spread westward. Peach trees are intolerant of severe cold but require winter chilling to induce spring growth. The long, pointed leaves are glossy green and lance¬ shaped. Pink or white flowers grow singly or clustered. The fleshy, juicy exterior of the fruit is edible; the hard interior is called the stone or pit. In freestone types, stones separate eas¬ ily from ripe flesh; in clingstone types, the flesh adheres firmly to the stone. Thousands of varieties have been developed. Peach skin is downy or fuzzy; smooth-skinned peaches are nectarines. Peaches are widely eaten fresh and are baked in desserts. Canned peaches are a staple commodity in many regions. Related plants include almond, plum, and cherry.

peacock Any of three species (family Phasianidae) of resplendent birds of open lowland forests. Blue, or Indian (Pavo cristatus), and green, or Javanese (P. muticus), peacock males are 35-50 in. (90-130 cm) long and have a 60-in. (150-cm) train of metallic green tail feathers tipped with an iridescent eyespot ringed with blue and bronze. The train is erected,

Pea (Pisum sativum)

WALTER CHANDOHA

Peach (Prunus persica).

GRANT HEILMAN PHOTOGRAPHY

1462 I Peacock ► Pearson

fanned out, and vibrated during courtship. Females (peahens) are duller and have no train. The male forms a harem of two to five hens, which lay their eggs in a depression in the ground. The blue and green male Congo peacock {Afropavo congensis ) has a short rounded tail; the reddish and brown hen has a topknot.

Peacock, Thomas Love (b. Oct. 18, 1785, Weymouth, Dorset, Eng.—d. Jan. 23, 1866, Lower Halliford, Middlesex) English novelist and poet. For most of his life Peacock worked for the East India Co. He was a close friend of Percy B. Shelley, who greatly inspired his writing. His best verse is interspersed in his novels, which are dominated by the con¬ versations of their characters and satirize the intellectual currents of the day. His best-known work, Nightmare Abbey (1818), satirizes romantic melancholy and includes characters based on Shelley, Samuel Taylor Col¬ eridge, and Lord Byron.

Peale, Charles Willson (b. April 15, 1741, Queen Anne's county, Md.—d. Feb. 22, 1827, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. painter, inventor, and naturalist. He began his career by exchanging a saddle for painting les¬ sons. He later went to London to study with Benjamin West. On his return he became the preeminent portrait painter of the middle colonies. He damaged his professional career by entering enthusiastically into the revo¬ lutionary movement. In 1786 he founded an institution in Philadelphia for the study of natural law and display of natural history and technological objects; the Peale Museum, the first major U.S. museum, was widely imi¬ tated by other museums of the period and later by P.T. Barnum. Peale is best remembered for his portraits of the leading figures of the American Revolution.

Peale, Norman Vincent (b. May 31, 1898, Bowersville, Ohio, U.S.—d. Dec. 24, 1993, Pawling, N.Y.) U.S. Protestant clergyman. The son of a Methodist preacher, he attended Ohio Wesleyan University and was ordained a pastor in the Methodist Episcopal church. After leading congregations in Brooklyn and Syracuse, N.Y., in 1933 he became pastor of Marble Collegiate Church in New York City, where he remained for the rest of his career. In 1937 he cofounded the Religio-Psychiatric Clinic, which combined religion and psychiatry in the interests of mental health. He gained fame through radio and television sermons and through his books, including the best-selling Power of Positive Thinking (1952). In 1969 he was elected president of the Reformed Church in America.

Peale, Rembrandt (b. Feb. 22, 1778, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, U.S.—d. Oct. 3, 1860, Philadelphia, Penn.) U.S. painter and writer. A son of Charles Willson Peale, he studied with his father at the Royal Academy in London. In Paris 1808-10 he was offered the post of court painter to Napoleon I. His early portrait of Thomas Jefferson (1805) was his master¬ piece. Following his father’s example, he opened a museum and portrait gallery in Baltimore, where he established the first illuminating gasworks. When he resumed painting, he turned to formal subject pieces (e.g., The Court of Death, 1820) before returning to portraiture, continuing a series of portraits of George Washington.

peanut or groundnut Annual legume ( Arachis hypogaea) and its edible seeds, which have the peculiar habit of ripening underground in pods. Native to tropical South America, peanuts were introduced early into the Old World tropics. Each pod contains one to three oblong seeds with whitish to dark-purple seed coats. Pound for pound, peanuts have more protein, minerals, and vitamins than beef liver, more fat than heavy cream, and more calories than sugar. They are pressed for edible oil, ground into peanut butter, eaten as snacks, and used in cooking. The plant is fed to livestock.

pear Any of several species of trees of the genus Pyrus, especially P communis, of the rose family, which is one of the most important fruit trees in the world and is cultivated in all temperate-zone countries of both hemispheres. The thousands of vari¬ eties include Bartlett (by far the most widely grown), Beurre Bose, and Beurre d'Anjou. In the U.S., much of the crop is canned; in Europe, pears are more commonly eaten fresh or used for perry (fermented pear juice). The tree is taller and more

upright than the apple tree; pear fruits are sweeter and softer than apples. Hard cells (grit, or stone cells) dot the flesh.

pearl Concretion formed by a mollusk and consisting of the same mate¬ rial (called nacre, or mother-of- pearl) as the mollusk's shell. Long treasured as gemstones, pearls are valued for their translucence and lus¬ tre and for the delicate play of sur¬ face colour. The more perfect a pearl’s shape and the deeper its lus¬ tre, the greater its value. The colour varies with the mollusk and its envi¬ ronment. Jewelers of the 16th—17th centuries often used irregularly shaped (baroque) pearls, formed from muscular tissue, to form the bodies of animals and other figures.

In Europe and China, mother-of- pearl has been used as an inlay mate¬ rial for decorating furniture. The discovery that a pearl could be cul¬ tivated by insertion of a foreign object inside the mollusk’s shell is said to have been made in 13th- century China.

Pearl Harbor Inlet, southern coast of Oahu island, Hawaii, U.S. It lies 6 mi (10 km) west of Honolulu, forming a landlocked harbour connected with the Pacific Ocean. In 1887 Hawaii granted the U.S. the exclusive use of the harbour as a coaling and repair station, and in 1908 a naval station was established. In 1941 the harbour was attacked without warning by the Japanese air force, causing great loss of life and precipitating U.S. entry into World War II. It is now the headquarters of the U.S. Pacific Fleet.

Pearl Harbor attack (Dec. 7, 1941) Surprise aerial attack by the Japanese on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu island, Hawaii, that precipitated U.S. entry into World War II. In the decade preceding the attack, U.S.-Japanese relations steadily worsened, especially after Japan entered into an alliance with the Axis powers (Germany and Italy) in 1940, and by late 1941 the U.S. had severed practically all commer¬ cial and financial relations with Japan. On November 26 a Japanese fleet sailed to a point some 275 mi (440 km) north of Hawaii, and from there about 360 planes were launched. The first dive-bomber appeared over Pearl Harbor at 7:55 am (local time) and was followed by waves of tor¬ pedo planes, bombers, and fighters. Due to lax reconnaissance and the fact that many vessels were undermanned since it was a Sunday morn¬ ing, the base was unable to mount an effective defense. The Arizona was completely destroyed; the Oklahoma capsized; the California, Nevada, and West Virginia sank; more than 180 aircraft were destroyed; and numer¬ ous vessels were damaged. In addition, more than 2,300 military person¬ nel were killed. The “date which will live in infamy,” as U.S. Pres. Franklin Roosevelt termed it, unified the American public and swept away any earlier support of neutrality. On Dec. 8, 1941, Congress declared war on Japan.

Pearl River River, central Mississippi, U.S. It flows southwest through Jackson, then into Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. About 410 mi (660 km) long, it forms the boundary between Mississippi and Louisiana. Honey Island Swamp, lying in the mid-delta area southwest of Picayune, Miss., is noted for its wildlife and fishing.

pearlstone See perlite

Pearson, Drew orig. Andrew Russell (b. Dec. 3, 1897, Evanston, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 1, 1969, Rockville, Md.) U.S. newspaper columnist. Pearson taught industrial geography at the University of Pennsylvania before turning to journalism. He was fired from the Baltimore Sun for writing Washington Merry-Go-Round (1931, with Robert S. Allen), a gos¬ sipy book about the scene in the U.S. capital. From 1932 he wrote an influential syndicated column of the same name (with Allen until 1942; from 1965 with Jack Anderson, who inherited it on Pearson’s death), which specialized in muckraking. Among the many world leaders he inter¬ viewed was Nikita Khrushchev. See muckraker.

Pearson, Lester B(owles) (b. April 23, 1897, Toronto, Ont., Can.—d. Dec. 27, 1972, Ottawa, Ont.) Prime minister of Canada (1963-

Pear (Pyrus communis)

GRANT HEILMAN

Blister pearl attached to the shell of an Oriental pearl oyster (Pinctada marten- si i Dunker)

COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK

Peary ► Peck I 1463

68). He taught at the University of Toronto from 1924 until 1928, when he joined the Canadian foreign service. He was posted to Britain from 1935 to 1941 and to the U.S. from 1942 to 1945; he was ambassador to the U.S. from 1945 to 1946. He served in the Canadian House of Com¬ mons from 1948 to 1968 and as minister of external affairs from 1948 to 1956. During the latter period he also led the Canadian delegation to the UN; he was president of the UN General Assembly from 1952 to 1953. In 1957 he received the Nobel Prize for Peace for his role in resolving the Suez Crisis. He became head of the Liberal Party in 1958 and led it to victory in elections in 1963. His government introduced a national pen¬ sion plan and a family assistance program, broadened old-age security benefits, and laid the groundwork for the National Free Medical Service. In 1967 he rebuked visiting French Pres. Charles de Gaulle for his support of separatism in Quebec. He retired in 1968.

Peary, Harold orig. Harrold Jese Pereira de Faria (b. July 25, 1908, San Leandro, Calif., U.S.—d. March 30, 1985, Torrance, Calif.) U.S. actor. He created the colourful, arrogant character Throckmorton F. Gildersleeve on the hit comedy series Fibber McGee and Molly in 1937. He starred in his own popular radio serial, The Great Gildersleeve (1941— 50), considered the first spin-off created from another series. He later acted in television series such as Blondie (1957) and Fibber McGee and Molly (1959), and he appeared in the film Clambake (1967). Peary continued to perform on radio into the 1970s.

Peary, Robert E(dwin) (b. May 6, 1856, Cresson, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 20, 1920, Washington, D.C.) U.S. explorer. He joined the U.S. Navy in 1881 but was granted leaves of absence to pursue his Arctic expeditions. He explored Greenland by dog sled in 1886 and 1891, finding evidence that it was an island, and returned there in 1893-94, 1895, and 1896 to transport large meteorites to the U.S. After announcing his intention to reach the North Pole, he made several attempts between 1898 and 1905, sailing on a specially built ship and sledding to within 175 mi (280 km) of the pole. On April 6, 1909, accompanied by Matthew Henson (1866— 1955) and four Eskimo, he reached what he thought was the pole, and he became widely acknowledged as the first explorer to attain that goal. (The claim of his former colleague Frederick A. Cook to have reached the pole in 1908 was later discredited.) In 1911 Peary retired from the navy with the rank of rear admiral. Examination of Peary’s expedition diary and new documents in the 1980s suggested that the point he reached may have been 30-60 mi (50-100 km) short of the pole.

peasant Any member of a class that tills the soil as small landowners or agricultural labourers. The peasant economy generally has a simple technology and a division of labour by age and sex. The basic unit of pro¬ duction is the family or household. Peasant families traditionally consume what they produce, though a portion of their output may be sold in the market or paid to a landlord. Productivity per worker and yields per unit of land are usually low. Peasants as a class tend to disappear as a society industrializes, though peasantlike social structures may persist under new economic regimens. See also ejido; feudalism; hacienda; serfdom.

Peasants' Revolt or Wat Tyler's Rebellion (1381) First great popular rebellion in English history. It was triggered by the poll tax of 1381, which angered labourers and artisans already resentful of the lim¬ its on wages fixed by the Statute of Labourers (1351). Centred in south¬ eastern England and East Anglia, the revolt was led by Wat Tyler (d. 1381), who marched into London with a band of Kentish rebels. They captured the Tower of London and beheaded officials responsible for the poll tax. Richard II promised reforms, but Tyler was killed in his presence by the mayor of London. The last of the rebels were subdued in East Anglia two weeks later.

Peasants' War (1524-25) Peasant uprising in Germany. Inspired by reforms brought by the Reformation, peasants in western and southern Germany invoked divine law to demand agrarian rights and freedom from oppression by nobles and landlords. As the uprising spread, some peas¬ ant groups organized armies. Although the revolt was supported by Hul- drych Zwingli and Thomas MOntzer, its condemnation by Martin Luther contributed to its defeat, principally by the army of the Swabian League. Some 100,000 peasants were killed. Reprisals and increased restrictions discouraged further attempts to improve the peasants’ plight.

peat Organic fuel consisting of a light, spongy material formed in tem¬ perate, humid environments by the accumulation and partial decomposi¬ tion of vegetable remains under conditions of poor drainage. Peat deposition is the first step in the formation of COAL. Dried peat bums

readily, with a smoky flame and a characteristic odour. It is used for domestic heating and can be used to fire boilers. It is only a minor con¬ tributor to the world energy supply, but large deposits occur in Canada, China, Indonesia, Russia, Scandinavia, and the U.S. Major users include Finland, Ireland, Russia, and Sweden.

peat moss or sphagnum moss Vsfag-nomN Any of more than 160 species of plants that make up the bryophyte genus Sphagnum, which grow in dense clumps around ponds, in swamps and bogs, on moist, acid cliffs, and on lakeshores from tropical to subpolar regions. These pale- green to deep-red plants can hold 20 times their weight in water. As they die and are compressed, they form organic peat, which is harvested and dried as fuel, as seedbed cover, and as shipping packaging for plants and live aquatic animals. Gardeners stir peat into soil to increase soil mois¬ ture, porosity, and acidity and to reduce erosion.

pecan Nut and tree ( Carya illinoinensis) of the walnut family, native to temperate North America. Occasion¬ ally reaching a height of about 160 ft (50 m), the tree has deeply furrowed bark and feather-shaped leaves.

Pecan nut meat, rich and distinctive in flavour and texture, has one of the highest fat contents of any vegetable product and a caloric value close to that of butter. Pecan production is a considerable industry of the south¬ eastern U.S., where pecan pie and pecan praline candy are traditional sweets.

peccary Vpe-ko-re\ or javelin

Vja-v9-lon\ Any of three species (family Tayassuidae) of New World even-toed ungulates resembling pigs.

Found in deserts and wet tropical forests from Texas to Patagonia, pec¬ caries are gray with white markings and have small, erect ears and almost no tail. They grow to 30-35 in.

(75-90 cm) long and weigh 37-66 lb (17-30 kg). A scent gland that opens on the back and emits a strong, musky odour inspired the belief that peccaries have two navels. Peccaries have spearlike upper canines and eat plants, small animals, and carrion.

They live in groups of 5-25 or 50-100, depending on the species.

Pechora River \pi-'cho-r3\ River, northeastern Russia. It rises in the northern Ural Mountains and flows south, then west and north to enter the Barents Sea after a course of 1,124 mi (1,809 km). It is frozen from early November to early May. Its basin contains large deposits of coal, petro¬ leum, and natural gas.

Pechora Sea Russian Pechorskoye More Vpi-'chor-sko-yo- 'mor-yoN Sea, southeastern extension of the Barents Sea, north of Euro¬ pean Russia. It is located between Kolguyev Island and the Yugorsky Peninsula. Although it is blocked by floating ice from November to June, its cod, seals, and other marine life are exploited. The main port is Naryan- Mar on the Pechora River.

Peck, (Eldred) Gregory (b. April 5, 1916, La Jolla, Calif., U.S.—d. June 12, 2003, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actor. While a premed stu¬ dent at the University of California at Berkeley, he developed a taste for acting. He appeared on Broadway in The Morning Star (1942) and played several other stage roles before making his film debut in Days of Glory (1944). Known for playing likeable, honest men of high moral quality, he starred in movies such as The Keys of the Kingdom (1944), Spellbound (1945), Gentleman’s Agreement (1947), Twelve O’Clock High (1949), Roman Holiday (1953), and To Kill a Mockingbird (1962, Academy Award). His later films include Mac Arthur (1977), The Old Gringo (1989), and Cape Fear (1991). He also served for three years as presi¬ dent of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

1464 I pecking order ► Peel

pecking order Basic pattern of social organization within a flock of poultry in which each bird pecks another lower in the scale without fear of retaliation and submits to pecking by one of higher rank. For groups of mammals (e.g., baboon, wolf) or other birds, the term “dominance hierar¬ chy” is usually used, and the ranking often involves feeding or mating.

Peckinpah Ype-kin-.paV, (David) Sam(uel) (b. Feb. 21, 1925, Fresno, Calif., U.S.—d. Dec. 28, 1984, Inglewood, Calif.) U.S. film direc¬ tor. He served in the U.S. Marines, studied drama at the University of Southern California, and began working in television in the mid-1950s, writing for and directing programs such as Gunsmoke and The Rifleman. He made his debut as a film director with The Deadly Companions (1961), which was followed by Ride the High Country (1962) and Major Dundee (1965). Among his later films are The Wild Bunch (1969), considered his finest, Straw Dogs (1971), Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (1973), and Cross of Iron (1977). His films are noted for their magnificent landscapes, embit¬ tered characters, and brutal violence.

Pecos \'pa-kos\ River River, eastern New Mexico and western Texas, U.S. It rises in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico and flows southeast about 500 mi (800 km) across the Texas border. It empties into the Rio Grande at the Amistad National Recreation Area. There are many dams along the river, including the Alamogordo, Avalon, and Red Bluff dams.

pectin Any of a class of carbohydrates found in certain plant cell walls and tissues. They are principally composed of a galactose derivative, galacturonic acid. In fruits, pectin keeps the walls of adjacent cells joined together, helping them remain firm and hold their shape. As fruits become overripe, the pectin breaks down to simple sugars that dissolve more readily, so the fruits become soft and lose their shape. Because it forms a thick, gel-like solution when added in small amounts to fruit acids, sugar, and water, pectin is used to make jellies, jams, and marmalades. Its thick¬ ening properties also make it useful in the confectionery, pharmaceutical, and textile industries.

Pedersen Vpith-ar-sanV Holger (b. April 7, 1867, Gelballe, Den.—d. Oct. 25, 1953, Copenhagen) Danish linguist. He specialized in compara¬ tive Celtic grammar but made influential contributions to many other areas of linguistics. In addition to his Comparative Grammar of the Celtic Lan¬ guages , 2 vol. (1909-13), he published works on Albanian, Armenian, Rus¬ sian, and Indo-European dialects; on Lithuanian, Hittite, Tocharian, Czech, and Turkish phonology; on the relationship of Indo-European languages to the Semitic and Finno-Ugric languages; and on the origin of runes.

pedestal In Classical architecture, a support or base for a column, statue, vase, or obelisk. It may be square, octagonal, or circular. A single pedestal may also support a group of columns, or colonnade (see podium). The ped¬ estal, which was first employed by Roman architects, consists (from bot¬ tom to top) of three parts: the plinth, the dado (or die), and the cornice (or cap).

pediatrics \,pe-de-'a-triks\ Medical specialty dealing with the develop¬ ment, health, and diseases of children. It became a specialized area of study in the 18th century, when the first children’s hospitals were founded. Early pediatricians studied childhood diseases (see Thomas Sydenham) but could do little to cure them. By the mid-20th century, when antibiotics and vaccines had controlled most of these diseases in the developed world and infant and child mortality had fallen, pediatrics changed its focus to nor¬ mal growth and child development. Recently, behavioral and social aspects of children’s health have been incorporated.

pedigree Record of ancestry or purity of breed. Pedigrees of domes¬ ticated animals are maintained by governmental or private record asso¬ ciations or breed organizations in many countries. In human genetics, pedigree diagrams are used to trace the inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality, or disease. Standard symbols are used to represent males, females, mating (marriage), and offspring. The offspring symbols appear from left to right in the order of birth and are connected to the marriage line by a vertical line. Possession of the character under study is shown by a solid or blackened symbol, and absence is shown by an open or clear symbol.

pediment In Classical architecture, a triangular gable crowning a por¬ tico or facade. The pediment was the crowning feature of the Greek temple front. The pediment’s triangular wall surface, or tympanum, was often decorated with sculpture. The Romans adapted the pediment as a purely decorative form to finish doors, windows, and niches, sometimes using a

series of alternating triangular and segmentally curved pediments, a motif revived in the Italian High Renaissance. Baroque-era designers developed many varieties of broken, scrolled, and reverse-curved pediments.

pediment In geology, any relatively flat surface of bedrock (exposed or lightly covered with soil or gravel) that occurs at the base of a moun¬ tain or as a plain having no associated mountain. Pediments are most con¬ spicuous in basin-and-range-type desert areas throughout the world, but they also occur in humid areas. In the tropics, the surfaces tend to be cov¬ ered with soil and obscured by vegetation. Many tropical river towns are situated on pediments, which offer easier building sites than the steep hillsides above or the river marshes below.

pedology \pi-'da-b-je\ A branch of soil science focusing on the for¬ mation, morphology, and classification of soils as bodies within the natu¬ ral landscape. Pedology seeks to understand how the properties and distribution patterns of soils worldwide (collectively called the pedo- sphere) have developed along with broader landforms, biogeochemical environments, and habitats of living organisms. Through their understand¬ ing of the causes and magnitudes of soil variations, pedologists help to broaden knowledge of the surface of the Earth.

Pedrell \pa-'threl\, Felipe (b. Feb. 19, 1841, Tortosa, Spain—d. Aug. 19, 1922, Barcelona) Spanish musicologist and composer. He was largely self-taught as a musician. A scholarship for study in Rome exposed him to the great past of Spanish music preserved in archives there, and he set about reviving the tradition by bringing to light both folk and older art music and by promoting a national style of composition. His own works include operas and orchestral and choral works. He is regarded as the father of Spanish musical nationalism.

Pedro Vpa-dro, 'pa-drii\ I known as Dom Pedro (b. Oct. 12, 1798, Lisbon, Port.—d. Sept. 24, 1834, Lisbon) First emperor of Brazil (1822— 31) and, briefly, king of Portugal. The son of John VI of Portugal, he became regent of Brazil in 1821, but in 1822 he broke with Lisbon and declared Brazil’s independence. The former colony became a constitu¬ tional monarchy with Pedro its emperor. Strong opposition to his auto¬ cratic manner and impatience with parliamentary procedure induced him to abdicate in favour of his five-year-old son, Pedro II. When John VI died, Pedro I became Portugal’s King Pedro IV, but he quickly abdicated in favour of his daughter, the future Queen Maria II. See also Jose Bonifa¬ cio de Andrada e Silva.

Pedro II orig. Dom Pedro de Alcantara (b. Dec. 2, 1825, Rio de Janeiro, Braz.—d. Dec. 5, 1891, Paris, Fr.) Second and last emperor of Brazil (1831-89). He became emperor at age five when his father, Pedro I, abdicated. After a period of regency, he was crowned in 1841. His con¬ cern for his subjects, skill at arbitrating political disputes, and leadership in economic matters brought stability to the country. He led Brazil into the Paraguayan War, which brought Brazil prestige and territory. His support eroded primarily over the issue of the imperial prerogatives. Emancipation was proclaimed in 1888; in 1889 Pedro II was removed in a military coup, and a republic was established. See also Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva.

Pee Dee River River, North and South Carolina, U.S. Rising as the Yadkin River in the Blue Ridge in northwestern North Carolina, it flows southeast into Winy ah Bay near Georgetown, S.C. It is 233 mi (375 km) long. The lower Pee Dee is navigable for 90 mi (145 km).

Peel, Sir Robert, 2nd Baronet

(b. Feb. 5, 1788, Bury, Lancashire, Eng.—d. July 2, 1850, London) Brit¬ ish prime minister (1834-35, 1841— 46) and principal founder of the Conservative Party. A member of Par¬ liament from 1809, Peel served as chief secretary for Ireland (1812-18) and resisted efforts to admit Catho¬ lics to Parliament. As home secretary (1822-27, 1828-30), he reorganized England’s criminal code. He estab¬ lished London’s first disciplined

Sir Robert Peel, detail of an oil painting by John Linnell, 1838; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

Peel River ► Pelagianism I 1465

police force, whose members were nicknamed after him “bobbies” or “peelers.” After a brief first term as prime minister, Peel led the newly formed Conservative Party to a strong victory in the 1841 elections and became prime minister again. He imposed an income tax, reorganized the Bank of England, and initiated reforms in Ireland. Favouring reduced tar¬ iffs on imports, he repealed the Corn Laws, which caused his government to fall, but he continued to support free-trade principles in Parliament. He was the chief architect of the mid-Victorian age of stability and prosper¬ ity that he did not live to see.

Peel River River, northwestern Canada. It rises in western Yukon Ter¬ ritory and flows east and then north into the Mackenzie River in the North¬ west Territories, near Fort McPherson, a fur-trading post. It is 425 mi (684 km) long. Its upper course through Peel Plateau is characterized by can¬ yons as deep as 1,000 ft (300 m). Its lower valley consists primarily of nature preserves and game sanctuaries.

peerage Body of peers or titled nobility in Britain. The five ranks, in descending order, are duke, marquess, earl (see count), viscount, and baron. Until 1999, peers were entitled to sit in the House of Lords and exempted from jury duty. Titles may be hereditary or granted for life.

Pegasus Vpe-go-sosV In Greek mythology, a winged horse. It sprang from the blood of Medusa as she was beheaded by Perseus. Bellerophon captured Pegasus and rode him in several of his exploits, including his fight with the Chimera, but when he tried to ride the winged horse to heaven he was unseated and killed, and Pegasus was placed in the sky as a constellation. The flight of Pegasus is often regarded as a symbol of poetic inspiration.

pegmatite Vpeg-mo-.tltV Almost any wholly crystalline igneous rock that is at least in part very coarse-grained, the major constituents of which include minerals typically found in ordinary igneous rocks (such as gran¬ ites) and in which extreme textural variations, especially in grain size, are characteristic. Usually found as irregular dikes, lenses, or veins, pegma¬ tite deposits occur in all parts of the world and are the chief source of commercial feldspar, sheet mica, and beryllium, tantalum-niobium, and lithium minerals.

Pei \'pa\, l(eoh) M(ing) (b. April 26, 1917, Canton, China) Chinese- born U.S. architect. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1935 and studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University. After working for the architectural firm of Webb & Knapp, he formed his own partnership in 1955. Early in his career he created the building for the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colo. (1968), which mimics the broken silhouettes of the surrounding peaks. His innovative East Building of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (1978), was hailed as one of his finest achievements. Other works include Bos¬ ton’s John Hancock Tower (1973), Beijing’s Fragrant Hill Hotel (1982), and a controversial glass pyramid for a courtyard at the Louvre Museum, Paris (1989). Pei’s designs represent an elaboration on the rectangular forms and irregular silhouettes of the International Style but with a uniquely skillful arrangement of geometric shapes and a dramatic use of varied materials, spaces, and surfaces; in his Miho Museum of Art, Shiga, Japan (1997), for example, he achieved a harmony between the building, much of it underground, and its mountain environment. In 1983 Pei received the Pritzker Architecture Prize.

peine forte et dure Ypen-'fort-a-'dueA French "strong and hard punishment" Formerly in English law, punishment inflicted on those accused of a felony who refused to enter a plea. By a statute of 1275, the peine was usually to imprison and starve the prisoner until he submitted; in 1406 pressing by heavy weights was added to this. In one of the few instances of its use in the American colonies, during the Salem witch tri¬ als, 80-year-old Giles Corey, who had decided not to stand trial rather than forfeit his family’s goods, was pressed to death by interrogators. The practice was abolished in 1772.

Peipsi \'pap-se\, Lake Estonian Peipsi Jarv Lake, north-central Europe, forming the boundary between Estonia and Russia. Lake Peipsi is 60 mi (97 km) long and 31 mi (50 km) wide, and it is frozen for half of the year. In 1242 the Russians, under Alexander Nevsky, defeated the Teutonic Knights (see Teutonic Order) on the frozen lake in the “Battle on the Ice,” forcing the order to relinquish claims to Russian lands.

Peipus, Lake See Lake Peipsi

Peirce Vpors, 'pirs\, Charles Sanders (b. Sept. 10, 1839, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. April 19, 1914, near Milford, Pa.) U.S. scientist, logi¬

cian, and philosopher. He was the son of the mathematician and astrono¬ mer Benjamin Peirce (1809-80). After attending Harvard University he spent 30 years with the U.S. Coast Guard Survey (1861-91). As a scien¬ tist, he is noted for his contributions to the theory of probability, the study of gravity, and the logic of scientific methodology. He eventually aban¬ doned the physical sciences to study logic, which in its widest sense he identified with semiotics. He lectured on logic at Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity from 1879 to 1894, then spent the rest of his life writing in seclu¬ sion. He is regarded as the founder of pragmatism. Though he made eminent contributions to deductive logic, he was a student primarily of “the logic of science”—i.e., of induction and of “retroduction,” or “abduc¬ tion,” the forming and accepting on probation of a hypothesis in order to explain surprising facts. His lifelong ambition was to establish induction and abduction as permanent branches of logic.

Peisistratus \pi-'sis-tro-t9s\ or Pisistratus (d. 527 bc) Tyrant of Ath¬ ens (c. 560-559, 556-555, 546-527). Bom an aristocrat, he gained mili¬ tary honours early. He first became tyrant in 560 after claiming an attempt had been made on his life and appealing to the people to grant him a bodyguard, which he used to help seize the Acropolis. His reign was short-lived, but he gained power again briefly in 556, before being ousted by Lycurgus and Megacles. After several years in exile, he returned with an army in 546, took control, and remained in power until his death. A patron of the arts, he executed many public works and tried to help small farmers. His unification of Attica and improvement of Athens’s prosper¬ ity helped make the city preeminent in Greece.

Peking See Beijing Peking man See Zhoukoudian

Peking opera See jingxi

Peking University or Beijing University One of the oldest and most important institutions of higher education in China. It was founded as Capital College in 1898 and became a university in 1911. By 1920 it had become a centre for progressive thought. During the Sino-Japanese War (1937—45) it was temporarily relocated to Yunnan province. The first disturbances of the Cultural Revolution began at Beijing University in 1966; education there ceased between 1966 and 1970. The university has since reasserted its position as China’s foremost nontechnical university. It has more than three dozen colleges and academic departments and scores of research institutes.

Pekingese \,pe-k3-'nez\ Breed of long-haired toy dog developed in ancient China, where it was held sacred and was kept in Peking’s Imperial Palace. Looting English forces introduced the breed to the West in 1860. Known as the “lion dog” for its full mane but perhaps also for its courage, it stands 6-9 in.

(15-23 cm) and weighs up to 14 lbs (6.5 kg). It has hanging ears, a short, wrinkled muzzle, and a black mask across the face. The coat may be solid or variegated. Chinese royalty carried very small Pekingese, called “sleeve dogs,” in their sleeves.

Peko \'pa-ko\ In Estonian religion, an agricultural deity who aided the growth of grain, especially barley. Peko was represented by a wax image that was kept buried in the grain in the granary and brought out in early spring for a ritual of agricultural fertility. At the end of a ceremonial feast, leftovers were distributed among the poor, and the men competed in wres¬ tling or fence jumping to determine who had the right to keep Peko in his granary until the following year.

Pelagianism Npo-Ta-je-o-.ni-zomV Christian heresy of the 5th century that emphasized free will and the goodness of human nature. Pelagius (3547-after 418), a British monk who settled in Africa in 410, was eager to raise moral standards among Christians. Rejecting the arguments of those who attributed their sins to human weakness, he argued that God made humans free to choose between good and evil and that sin is an entirely voluntary act. His disciple Celestius denied the church’s doctrine of original sin and the necessity of infant baptism. Pelagius and Celestius were excommunicated in 418, but their views continued to find defend¬ ers until the Council of Ephesus condemned Pelagianism in 431.

Pekingese

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON-EB INC.

1466 I Pele ► pelvic inflammatory disease

Pele \'pa-,la\ orig. Edson Arantes do Nascimento (b. Oct. 23, 1940, Tres Cora^oes, Braz.) Brazil¬ ian football (soccer) player, in his time perhaps the most celebrated athlete in the world. He joined the Santos Football Club in 1956 and helped lead that team to a world club championship in 1962. He was part of three Brazilian national teams that won World Cup championships (1958, 1962, 1970). In 1969, during his 909th match, he scored his 1,000th goal. He combined kicking power and accuracy with a remark¬ able ability to anticipate other play¬ ers’ moves. In 1975 he joined the New York Cosmos of the North American Soccer League (NASL); he retired after leading the team to the league championship in 1977. He was the 1978 recipient of the International Peace Award, and in 1980 he was named Athlete of the Century.

Pelee \p9-'la\, Mount Active volcanic mountain, northern Martinique, West Indies. It is northwest of Fort-de-France and is 4,583 ft (1,397 m) high. A gently sloping cone, it supports luxuriant forests. A violent erup¬ tion in 1902 destroyed the port of Saint-Pierre, killing about 30,000 people. A minor eruption occurred in 1929.

Pelew See Palau

Pelham, Henry (b. 1696—d. March 6, 1754, London, Eng.) British prime minister (1743-54). He was elected to Parliament in 1717 and, as a supporter of Robert Walpole, became secretary for war (1724) and pay¬ master of the forces (1730). He succeeded Walpole as prime minister and chancellor of the Exchequer in 1743 and led a stable Whig ministry with parliamentary assistance from his brother, Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle. Pelham resisted attempts to prolong the War of the Austrian Succession and signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). After the war, he introduced financial reforms, including lower military expenditures, a reduced land tax, and a consolidation of the national debt.

Pelham-Holles, Thomas See Duke of Newcastle

pelican Any of about eight species constituting the genus Pelecanus (family Pelecanidae), white or brown birds distinguished by a large, elas¬ tic throat pouch. Some species are 70 in. (180 cm) long, have a wingspan of 10 ft (3 m), and weigh up to 30 lbs (13 kg). Most species drive fish into shallow water and, using the pouch as a dip net, scoop them up and immediately swallow them.

Pelicans inhabit freshwaters and sea- coasts in many parts of the world; they breed in colonies on islands, laying one to four eggs in a stick nest. Chicks thrust their bills down the parent’s gullet to obtain regurgi¬ tated food.

Pella Ancient capital, Macedonia.

Located in northern Greece, north¬ west of Thessaloniki, the city flour¬ ished at the end of the 5 th century bc.

Originally known as Bounomos, it developed rapidly under Philip II, but, after the Romans defeated the last Macedonian king, it became a small provincial town. Archaeological excavations began in 1957 and revealed large, well-built houses with rooms with mosaic floors dating from the late 4th century bc. Pella was the birthplace of Alexander the Great.

pellagra \p3-Ta-gro\ Nutritional disorder caused largely by a deficiency of niacin, marked by skin lesions and digestive and neurological distur¬ bances. Dermatitis usually appeal's first, with abnormal sensitivity to sun¬ light. It may look like a severe sunburn, later becoming reddish brown, rough, and scaly. Diarrhea usually alternates with constipation, along with mouth and tongue inflammation and cracking and dry scaling of the lips.

Later, mental abnormalities may include nervousness, depression, and delirium. Mild cases of niacin deficiency respond to a well-balanced diet alone. Pellagra still occurs where diets consist mostly of corn, which is low in both niacin and tryptophan (converted to niacin in the body), with little or no protein-rich food. It can also be a side effect of chronic alcoholism.

Peloponnese Vpe-lo-po-.nezX Peninsula, forming the southern part of mainland Greece. A large, mountainous body of land jutting south into the Mediterranean Sea, the peninsula has an area of 8,278 sq mi (21,439 sq km) and is joined to the rest of mainland Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth. The Mycenaean civilization flourished there in the 2nd millen¬ nium bc at Mycenae and Pylos. Its chief cities during the classical period were Corinth and Sparta. Under the Romans it was part of the province of Achaea from 146 bc to c. 4th century ad. It was part of the Byzantine Empire until it was taken by the Franks; they held it in the 13th—15th cen¬ turies, when it was often known as Morea. The modern city of Patras (pop., 2001: 163,446), in the north, is a commercial centre.

Peloponnesian League or Spartan Alliance Military coalition of Greek city-states led by Sparta, formed in the 6th century bc. League decisions about war, peace, or alliance were determined by congresses summoned by the Spartans. The league was a major force in Greek affairs, forming the core of resistance to the Persian invasions in 490 and 480 and fighting Athens in the Peloponnesian War. Its power declined after its defeat at Leuctra in 371, and the league disbanded in 366/365.

Peloponnesian War (431-404 bc) War fought between Athens and Sparta, the leading city-states of ancient Greece, along with their allies, which included nearly every other Greek city-state. Its principal cause was a fear of Athenian imperialism. The Athenian alliance relied on its strong navy, the Spartan alliance on its strong army. The war fell into two peri¬ ods, separated by a six-year truce. Fighting broke out in 431, with Peri¬ cles commanding the Athenians. In the first 10 years, Archidamus led the Spartans to defeats. Plague struck Athens in 429, killing Pericles and much of the army. In 428 Cleon almost convinced Athens to massacre the rebel¬ lious citizens of Mytilene on Lesbos, but Athens rescinded the order. In 421 both states agreed to accept the Peace of Nicias. This lasted six years, until Athens launched its disastrous Sicilian expedition. By 413 Athens’s forces were demolished. In 411 an oligarchy briefly took power. When democratic leaders were restored by the navy later that year, they refused Spartan peace offers, and the war continued until 405, when the Athenian navy was destroyed at the Battle of Aegospotami with Persian help. Under blockade, Athens surrendered in 404. Its empire was dismantled, and the Spartans installed the Thirty Tyrants.

Pelops Vpe-.laps, 'pe-,laps\ In Greek mythology, founder of the Pelopid dynasty at Mycenae. Pelops was a grandson of Zeus. His father, Tantalus, cooked and served Pelops to the gods at a banquet, and only Demeter, mourning the loss of her daughter, Persephone, was distracted enough to eat from the dish. The gods ordered the body restored, but the shoulder, Demeter’s portion, was missing, and the boy was given a replacement of ivory. In another story, Poseidon, helped Pelops gain the hand of Hippo- damia, daughter of King Oenomaus of Pisa.

pelota \p3-'lo-t9\ (Spanish: “little ball”) Any of several games in which players take turns, using a glove or implement, hitting a rubber ball either directly at one another or off a wall. The latter version is related to hand¬ ball and jai alai, which are played by two or four players on one-, two-, or three-walled courts using gloves, rackets, or bats. In Spain and elsewhere, pelota is a professional sport on which spectators wager.

Pelusium Xpo-'lii-she-omX Ancient Egyptian city. Located on what was once the easternmost mouth of the Nile River, its ruins lay southeast of modern Port Said. Beginning in the 26th dynasty (c. 7th century bc), it was the main frontier fortress facing Palestine and was a customs post for Asian goods. In 522 bc the Achaemenian Persians, under Cambyses II, defeated the pharaoh Psamtik III there. In Roman times it was a station on the trade route to the Red Sea; its ruins date from the Roman period.

pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) Acute inflammation of the pel¬ vic cavity in women, caused by bacterial infection (usually gonorrhea or CHLAMYDIA) of the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. Usually a SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE, it occurs mainly in sexually active women under age 25, more often in those using intrauterine devices (IUDs). PID can resemble gonorrhea, with abdominal and lower pelvic pain, chills, nausea, fever, and thick, foul-smelling vaginal discharge. Fallopian tube scarring can cause infer¬ tility and ectopic pregnancy. Treatment requires antibiotics, bed rest, pain

Pele.

AFP/PICTORIAL PARADE

Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis).

NORMAN TOMALIN—BRUCE COLEMAN INC.