Britannica Concise 2005 - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Encyclopedia Britannica (ч. 46)

flysch Vflish\ Sequence of shales interbedded with thin, hard, graywacke- like sandstones. Such sequences are usually thousands of yards thick, but the individual beds are only a few inches to a few yards thick. The occa¬ sional presence of fossils indicates marine deposition. The term originally was applied to a formation of the Tertiary Period in the northern Alpine region, but it now denotes similar deposits of other ages and places.

flytrap See Venus's-flytrap

flywheel Heavy wheel attached to a rotating shaft to smooth out deliv¬ ery of power from a motor to a machine. The inertia of the flywheel opposes and moderates fluctuations in the speed of the engine and stores the excess energy for intermittent use. In automobile engines, the flywheel smooths out the pulses of energy provided by the combustion in the cyl¬ inders and provides energy for the compression stroke of the pistons. In power presses the actual punching, shearing, and forming are done in only a fraction of the operating cycle. During the longer, nonactive period, the speed of the flywheel is built up slowly by a comparatively low-powered motor. When the press is operating, most of the required energy is pro¬ vided by the flywheel.

FM in full frequency modulation Variation of the frequency of a carrier wave (commonly a radio wave) in accordance with variations in the audio signal being sent. Developed by American electrical engineer Edwin H. Armstrong in the early 1930s, FM is less susceptible to outside interference and noise (e.g., thunderstorms, nearby machinery) than is AM. Such noise generally affects the amplitude of a radio wave but not its frequency, so an FM signal remains virtually unchanged. FM is also better able to transmit sounds in stereo than AM. Commercial FM broad¬ casting stations transmit their signals in the frequency range of 88 mega¬ hertz (MHz) to 108 MHz.

Fo, Dario (b. March 24, 1926, Leggiuno-Sangiano, Italy) Italian play¬ wright. He and his wife, Franca Rame, founded a theatre company that developed a leftist theatre of politics and later established an acting troupe with funding from the Italian Communist Party. In 1970 they set up a touring collective to perform in factories and other public sites. Fo’s popular one-man show Mistero Buffo (1973) was censured by the Vatican. He wrote more than 70 plays, including the satire Accidental Death of an Anarchist (1974) and The Pope and the Witch (1989). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1997.

Foch Vfosh,\ English VfashV Ferdinand (b. Oct. 2, 1851, Tarbes, France—d. March 20, 1929, Paris) French commander of Allied forces in World War I. He entered the artillery corps in 1873 and from 1885 periodically taught military strategy at the war college, becoming its com¬ mandant in 1908. After World War I broke out, he commanded an army detachment and planned the strategy that enabled Joseph-Jacques-Cesaire Joffre to win the First Battle of the Marne. After commanding at the Battles of Ypres and the Somme, Foch was appointed chief of the general staff (1917), adviser to the Allied armies, and then commander in chief of all Allied armies (May 1918), in which capacity he prevailed on the battlefield against Erich Ludendorff. When Germany was forced to ask for an armistice, the conditions were dictated by the recently promoted Mar¬ shal Foch. Considered the leader most responsible for the Allied victory, he was showered with honours after the war and was buried near Napo¬ leon in the Invalides.

Focke-Wulf 190 ► folk music I 687

Focke-Wulf 190 (Fw 190) Vfo-ko-'vulfX Fighter aircraf of Nazi Ger¬ many, second in importance only to the Messerschmitt 109 in the German air force in World War II. It began service in 1941, was superior to all its opponents until 1942—43, and remained a successful fighter and fighter- bomber until the war ended. A single-seater, it was armed with four 7.9-mm machine guns; later versions also carried cannons. The model produced near the end of the war had a top speed of about 430 mph (690 kph).

fog Cloud of small water droplets near ground level that is dense enough to reduce horizontal visibility to less than about 3,000 ft (1,000 m). Fog may also refer to clouds of smoke particles (smog), ice particles, or mix¬ tures of these components. When visibility is more than 3,000 ft, the phe¬ nomenon is termed mist or haze, depending on whether it is caused by water drops or by solid particles. Fog is formed by the condensation of water vapour on condensation nuclei that are always present in natural air. The most stable fogs occur when the surface is colder than the air above. Fogs can also occur when cold air moves over a warm, wet sur¬ face and becomes saturated by the evaporation of moisture from the sur¬ face. Convection currents carry the fog upward as it forms, and it appears to rise as steam or smoke from the wet surface.

Foix \'fwa\ Historical region, southern France. It corresponds approxi¬ mately to the modern departement of Ariege in the region of Midi- Pyrenees. Foix was a quasi-independent power from the 11th to the 15th century. Bounded by Languedoc and by the territories of the counts of Roussillon and the kings of Aragon, it became part of the crown lands at the ascension of Henry IV as king of France (1589).

Fokine \fo-'ken\, Michel orig. Mikhail Mikhaylovich Fokine

(b. April 23, 1880, St. Petersburg,

Russia—d. Aug. 22, 1942, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. dancer and choreographer. He trained at the Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg and debuted at the Mariinsky Theatre at age 18. Follow¬ ing his creation of The Dying Swan for Anna Pavlova in 1905, he was in demand as a choreographer. When his ambitious scenario for a ballet on the story of Daphnis and Chloe was rejected, Sergey Diaghilev in 1909 engaged Fokine at the Ballets Russes in Paris, where he choreographed works such as The Firebird (1910),

Petrushka (1911), and Daphnis and Chloe (1912). In these ballets he strove for a greater dramatic and sty¬ listic unity than had been previously known. He moved to New York City in 1923 and thereafter choreo¬ graphed works for companies in the U.S. and Europe.

Fokker, Anthony orig. Anton April 6, 1890, Kediri, Java, Nether¬ lands East Indies—d. Dec. 23, 1939,

New York, N.Y., U.S.) Dutch-U.S. aircraft designer and manufacturer.

He built his first plane in 1910 and taught himself to fly. In 1912 he established a small aircraft factory near Berlin. In World War I he pro¬ duced over 40 types of airplanes for Germany, having originally offered his designs to both sides. He also developed a gear system that allowed a machine gun to fire through a spinning propeller’s field.

In 1922 he moved to the U.S. and opened an aircraft factory, where he produced numerous commercial air¬ craft that were used in the newly developing U.S. airlines business.

folate See folic acid

fold In geology, an undulation or wave in the stratified rocks of the Earth’s crust. Stratified rocks were originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat, horizontal sheets, although in some places the strata are no longer horizontal but have warped. The warping may be so gentle that the inclination of the strata is barely perceptible, or it may be so pro¬ nounced that the strata of the two flanks are essentially parallel or nearly flat. Folds vary widely in size; the tops of large folds are commonly eroded away on the Earth’s surface.

foliation Planar arrangement of structural or textural features in any rock type, but particularly that resulting from the alignment of constitu¬ ent mineral grains of a metamorphic rock along straight or wavy planes. Foliation commonly occurs parallel to original bedding, but it may not be obviously related to any other structural direction. Foliation is exhibited most prominently by sheety minerals, such as mica or chlorite.

folic acid \'fo-lik\ or folate Organic compound essential to animal growth and health and needed by bacteria as a growth factor. Part of the vitamin B complex, folic acid is necessary for synthesis of nucleic acids and formation of the heme component of hemoglobin in red blood cells. To prevent neural tube defects in babies, it should ideally be taken by women starting at least a month before conception. Dietary folate sources include leafy and dark green vegetables, citrus fruits, cereals, beans, poultry, and egg yolks, but free folic acid is available only in supplements. Low intake leads to folic acid deficiency anemia.

folic-acid-deficiency anemia Anemia resulting from too little folic acid, needed for red-blood-cell maturation (see erythrocyte). White-cell and platelet levels are also often low. Progressive gastrointestinal prob¬ lems develop. It may result from poor diet or from malabsorption, cir¬ rhosis of the liver, or anticonvulsant drugs; it may also occur in the last three months of pregnancy and in severe hemolytic anemia (in which red cells break down). The blood profile resembles that of pernicious anemia. Taking folic acid causes rapid improvement; an adequate diet cures cases caused by malnutrition.

Folies-Bergere \fo-Te-ber-'zher\ Music hall and variety theatre in Paris. It opened in 1869 and soon became a major music hall, presenting oper¬ ettas and pantomimes. By the 1890s its repertory also included vaudeville sketches, acrobats, ballets, and magicians. After the vogue of nudity appeared in Parisian music halls (1894), the Folies produced sensational displays of women in scanty but opulent costumes that soon overshad¬ owed its other performances. Under the management of Paul Derval (1918-66), the Folies achieved an international reputation and became one of Paris’s major tourist attractions. Each show requires about 10 months of preparation, 40 sets, and 1,000 costumes.

folk art Art produced in a traditional fashion by peasants, seamen, country artisans, or tradespeople with no formal training, or by members of a social or ethnic group that has preserved its traditional culture. It is predominantly functional, typically produced by hand for use by the maker or by a small group or community. Paintings are usually incorpo¬ rated as decorative features on clock faces, chests, chairs, and interior and exterior walls. Sculptural objects in wood, stone, and metal include toys, spoons, candlesticks, and religious items. Folk architecture may include public and residential buildings, such as eastern European wooden churches and U.S. frontier log cabins. Other examples of visual folk arts are woodcuts, scrimshaw, pottery, textiles, and traditional clothing.

folk dance Dance that has developed without a choreographer and that reflects the traditional life of the common people of a country or region. The term was coined in the 18th century and is sometimes used to dis¬ tinguish between dances of the people and those of the aristocracy. Courtly and formal dances of the 16th-20th centuries often developed from folk dances; these include the gavotte, gigue, mazurka, minuet, polka, samba, tango, and waltz. See also country dance; hula; morris dance; square dance; sword dance; tap dance.

folk music Music held to be typical of a nation or ethnic group, known to all segments of its society, and preserved usually by oral tradition. Knowledge of the history and development of folk music is largely con¬ jectural. Musical notation of folk songs and descriptions of folk music culture are occasionally encountered in historical records, but these tend to reflect primarily the literate classes’ indifference or even hostility. As Christianity expanded in medieval Europe, attempts were made to sup¬ press folk music because of its association with heathen rites and cus¬ toms, and uncultivated singing styles were denigrated. During the

Fokine as Perseus in Medusa

COURTESY OF THE DANCE COLLECTION, THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY AT LINCOLN CENTER, ASTOR, LENOX AND T1LDEN FOUNDATIONS

Herman Gerard Fokker (b.

Anthony Fokker.

ULLSTEIN BILDERDIENST

688 i folk psychology ► Fontainebleau

Renaissance, new humanistic attitudes encouraged acceptance of folk music as a genre of rustic antique song, and composers made extensive use of the music; folk tunes were often used as raw material for motets and masses, and Protestant hymns borrowed from folk music. In the 17th century folk music gradually receded from the consciousness of the lit¬ erate classes, but in the late 18th century it again became important to art music. In the 19th century, folk songs came to be considered a “national treasure,” on a par with cultivated poetry and song. National and regional collections were published, and the music became a means of promoting nationalistic ideologies. Since the 1890s, folk music has been collected and preserved by mechanical recordings. Publications and recordings have promoted wide interest, making possible the revival of folk music where traditional folk life and folklore are moribund. After World War II, archives of field recordings were developed throughout the world. While research has usually dealt with “authentic” (i.e., older) material not heavily influenced by urban popular music and the mass media, the influ¬ ence of singer-songwriters such as Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, and Bob Dylan expanded the genre to include original music that largely retains the form and simplicity of traditional compositions.

folk psychology Ways of conceptualizing mind and the mental that are implicit in our ordinary, everyday attributions of mental states to our¬ selves and others. Philosophers have adopted different positions about the extent to which folk psychology and its generalizations (e.g., those por¬ traying human actions as governed by intention) are supported by the findings of scientific psychology. Some consider it indispensible to under¬ standing human conduct. Others (“eliminative materialists”) think that it can and perhaps will be replaced by scientific psychology.

folklore Oral literature and popular tradition preserved among a people. It may take the form of fairy tales, ballads, epics, proverbs, and riddles. Stud¬ ies of folklore began in the early 19th century and first focused on rural folk and others believed to be untouched by modern ways. Several aims can be identified. One was to trace archaic customs and beliefs. In Ger¬ many Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm published their classic collection of fairy tales in 1812. James George Frazer’s The Golden Bough (1890) reflects the use of folklore as a tool to reconstruct ancient beliefs and rituals. Another motive for the study of folklore was nationalism, which reinforced eth¬ nic identity and figured in struggles for political independence. The cata¬ log of motifs of folktales and myths developed by Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson encouraged comparisons of variants of the same tale or other item from different regions and times. In the mid-20th century, new trends emerged. Any group that expressed its inner cohesion by maintaining shared traditions qualified as a “folk,” whether the linking factor be occu¬ pation, language, place of residence, age, religion, or ethnic origin. Emphasis also shifted from the past to the present, from the search for origins to the investigation of present meaning and function. Change and adaptation within tradition were no longer necessarily regarded as cor¬ ruptive.

folly In architecture, an eccentric, generally nonfunctional (and often deliberately unfinished) structure erected to enhance a romantic land¬ scape. Follies were particularly in vogue in England in the 18th and early 19th century. They might resemble medieval towers, ruined castles over¬ grown with vines, or crumbling Classical temples complete with fallen, eroded columns. In the U.S., the term has been applied to ornate gazebos. It may also be applied to any unusual building that is extravagant or whimsical in style.

Folsom complex Prehistoric culture of North America on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains that is known from stone tools. It is char¬ acterized by leaf-shaped flint projectile points having a concave base with side projections and a longitudinal groove on each face. The complex was first identified at Folsom, N.M., U.S. It includes a variety of scrapers, knives, and blades and is generally dated to 8000-9000 bc. Like the ear¬ lier Clovis complex, it is considered to be part of a Paleo-Indian big-game hunting tradition.

Fon \'fan\ People of southern Benin and adjacent parts of Togo. They speak a dialect of Gbe, a Kwa language of the Niger-Congo language family. Numbering about 3 million, the Fon are mainly farmers. Craft specialists include male ironworkers, sculptors, and weavers and female potters. The primary Fon social unit is the polygynous family, each woman and her children occupying a house within a compound. The vil¬ lage under a hereditary chief is the traditional political unit. Dahomey kingdom was peopled principally by Fon. See photo above.

Fonda, Henry (Jaynes) (b.

May 16, 1905, Grand Island, Neb., U.S.—d. Aug. 12, 1982, Los Ange¬ les, Calif.) U.S. actor. He achieved success on Broadway in The Farmer Takes a Wife (1934), which led him to Hollywood for the film version (1935). He portrayed thoughtful men of integrity in films such as Young Mr. Lincoln (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), and The Ox-Bow Inci¬ dent (1943). He also made comedies such as The Lady Eve (1941) and The Male Animal (1942). He returned to the stage in Mister Roberts (1948, Tony Award; film, 1955). His last film, On Golden Pond (1981, Acad¬ emy Award), also starred his daugh¬ ter Jane Fonda. His son, Peter (b. 1939), also achieved fame as a screen actor.

Fonda, Jane (Seymour) (b.

Dec. 21, 1937, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. film actress, political activist, and fitness enthusiast. The daughter of actor Henry Fonda, she made her film debut in Tall Story (1960), which began a career that took dizzying turns. After playing comic roles in such films as Cat Bal¬ lou (1965) and Barefoot in the Park (1967), she appeared as a sex kitten in husband Roger Vadim’s (married 1965-73) futuristic Barbarella (1968). She then plunged into leftist political activity, marrying the activ¬ ist Tom Hayden (married 1973-89) and loudly condemning the Vietnam War, and made socially conscious films including They Shoot Horses, Don’t They? (1969), Klute (1971, Academy Award), and Coming Home (1978, Academy Award). She later marketed a series of hugely popular exercise books and videotapes. After marrying Ted Turner in 1991 (divorced 2001), she retired from the screen.

Fonseca \f6n-'sa-ko\, Gulf of Inlet of the Pacific Ocean, Central America. Bounded by El Salvador to the northwest, Honduras to the northeast, and Nicaragua to the southeast, it reaches inland about 40 mi (65 km) and widens to about 50 mi (80 km). Its entrance, marked by Cape Amapala in El Salvador and Cape Cosiguina in Nicaragua, is about 20 mi (32 km) across. The shores are covered by mangrove swamps except where Conchagua Volcano rises sharply in the west.

font or typeface or type family Assortment or set of type (alpha¬ numeric characters used for printing), all of one coherent style. Before the advent of computers, fonts were expressed in cast metal that was used as a template for printing. Fonts are now stored as digitized images that can be scaled and otherwise modified for printing on electronic printers or digital photo typesetters. Fonts typically include the normal typeface (roman) as well as italic, bold, bold italic, and sometimes extra-bold ver¬ sions. See also typesetting, typography. See illustration opposite on follow¬ ing page.

Fontaine, Jean de La See Jean de La Fontaine

Fontainebleau \fo n -ten-'blo\ Chateau in northern France, southeast of the town of Fontainebleau. One of the largest structures built by the kings of France, it was originally a medieval hunting lodge, but was rebuilt (from 1528) under Francis I. Its numerous renovations show the transition from early Renaissance to Mannerist (Late Renaissance) styles. The cha¬ teau is a succession of five courts of different shapes. Of particular inter¬ est is the Gallery of Francis I (c. 1533-45), a long, narrow room decorated with stucco relief sculpture and painting by Rosso Fiorentino.

Fontainebleau, school of French and foreign artists associated with the court at Fontainebleau in the 16th century. In 1528 Francis I began to rebuild the palace and hired Rosso Fiorentino and Francesco Primaticcio to produce the mural decoration, stuccowork, and sculptural reliefs; also

Iron statue of the god of arms and war, made by the Fon of Benin, in the Musee de I'Homme, Paris

Fontane ► fool I 689

among the Italian artists was Benve¬ nuto Cellini. Many engravings were made of the work being done, and much of the most decorative paint¬ ing and sculpture can still be seen there. The Italian masters success¬ fully adapted their own styles to the French taste and were assisted by French and Flemish artists; together they produced a distinctive style of Mannerism. The innovation of stucco ornament in combination with mural painting had great influence on French art of the time.

Fontane Xfon-'ta-nsV Theodor (b. Dec. 30, 1819, Neuruppin,

Brandenburg—d. Sept. 20, 1898,

Berlin) German writer. He began his career as a journalist and wrote books based on his travels before turning to the novel late in life. Before the Storm (1878) is considered a masterpiece of historical fiction. Effi Briest (1895), known for its superb characteriza¬ tions and skillful portrayal of his native Brandenburg, is one of his several sympathetic treatments of women in circumscribed domestic lives. He is considered the first master of mod¬ ern German realism.

Diana the Huntress, oil on canvas by an anonymous artist of the school of Fontainebleau, c. 1550; in the Louvre, Paris.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

fontanel or fontanelle Vfan-to-.nelX One of six soft spots at the junc¬ tions (sutures) of the cranial bones in an infant’s skull, covered with tough,

ABGPabgp

Bodoni roman

ABGPabgp

Bodoni regular italic

ABGPabgp

Bodoni bold

A B G P a b g p

Bodoni bold italic

A B G P

Bodoni small caps

ABGPabgp

Bodoni poster

leading

Typefaces are designed to include space above and below so that the descenders of one bne do not touch the ascenders of the next.

Helvetica, sans serif typeface

The term font commonly refers to a type family such as Bodoni or Helvetica, which includes the entire alphabet in various weights (regular, bold, extra bold, etc.) and styles (roman, italics, or display type such as Bodoni poster). Type can be set in capitals ("caps"), lowercase, or small caps. The x-height of a font (the height of a lowercase letter that has no ascender or descender) will vary from typeface to type¬ face. The space between lines of type is referred to as "leading"—a term that dates back to a time when spacing was added with strips of lead. The specification of the example above is indicated as 10/11, or 10-point type with 11 points from base¬ line to baseline.

fibrous membrane. They allow molding of the head during birth. Some close by three months, others after a year, and still others by two years.

Fontanne, Lynn See Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne

Fonteyn \fan-'tan\, Dame Margot orig. Margaret Hookham

(b. May 18, 1919, Reigate, Surrey, Eng.—d. Feb. 21, 1991, Panama City, Pan.) British ballerina. She debuted with the Vic-Wells Ballet (later Royal Ballet) in 1934 and soon became its leading dancer, creating many roles in works by Frederick Ashton, including Horoscope, Symphonic Varia¬ tions, and Ondine. In the 1960s she won worldwide acclaim for her appearances with Rudolf Nureyev in ballets such as Swan Lake, Raymonda, and Le Corsaire. She continued to dance as a guest artist into the mid 1970s.

Foochow See Fuzhou

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) UN agency whose purpose is to improve nutrition and eliminate hunger by coordinating the efforts of governments in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. It also assists countries through research, training, development, and field missions, and it has helped with disaster and emergency relief. The FAO was established in 1945. Beginning in the 1960s, it concentrated on developing high-yield grain, eliminating protein deficiencies, supporting rural development, and encouraging agricultural exports. In the 1980s and ’90s, the FAO empha¬ sized strategies for sustainable agriculture and rural development that were economically feasible, environmentally sound, and technologically appropriate to the skill level of the host country. The organization, which has more than 180 members, is governed by the biennial FAO confer¬ ence, in which each member country, as well as the European Union, is represented. Its headquarters are in Rome. See also World Food Pro¬ gramme.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Agency of the U.S. Depart¬ ment of Health and Human Services. Established in 1927, it inspects, tests, approves, and sets safety standards for foods and food additives, drugs, chemicals, cosmetics, and household and medical devices. It can prevent untested products from being sold and take legal action to halt the sale of undoubtedly harmful products or of products that involve a health or safety risk. Its authority is limited to interstate commerce; it cannot con¬ trol prices nor directly regulate advertising except of prescription drugs and medical devices.

food chain Sequence of transfer of matter and energy from organism to organism in the form of food. These interconnected feeding relation¬ ships intertwine locally into a food web because most organisms consume or are consumed by more than one other type of organism. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms (such as phytoplankton), which convert solar energy to food, are the primary food source. In a predator chain, a plant-eating animal is eaten by a larger animal. In a parasite chain (see parasitism), a smaller organism consumes part of a larger host and may itself be parasitized by even smaller organisms. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms live on dead organic matter. Because energy, in the form of heat, is lost at each step, or trophic level, chains do not normally encompass more than four or five trophic levels.

food poisoning Acute gastrointestinal illness from eating foods con¬ taining toxins. These toxins may be poisons that occur naturally in plants and animals, chemical contaminants, or toxic products of microorganisms. Most cases are due to bacteria (including salmonella and staphylococcus) and their toxins (including botulism). Some strains of E. cou can cause severe illness. Chemical poisons include heavy metals (see mercury poi¬ soning), either from food or leached out from cookware by acidic foods. Food additives may have a long-term cumulative toxic effect. See also fish poisoning; mushroom poisoning.

food preservation Any method by which food is protected against spoilage by oxidation, bacteria, molds, and microorganisms. Traditional methods include dehydration, smoking, salting, controlled fermentation (including pickling), and candying; certain spices have also long been used as antiseptics and preservatives. Among the modern processes for food preservation are refrigeration (including freezing), canning, pasteur¬ ization, irradiation, and the addition of chemical preservatives.

fool or jester Comic entertainer whose madness or imbecility, real or pretended, made him a source of amusement and gave him license to abuse and poke fun at even his most exalted patrons. Professional fools flourished in diverse societies from ancient Egyptian times until the 18th

690 I fool's gold ► football

century. Often deformed, dwarfed, or crippled, fools were kept for luck as well as amusement, in the belief that deformity can avert the evil eye and that abusive raillery can transfer ill luck from the abused to the abuser. In some societies, they were regarded as inspired with poetic and pro¬ phetic powers. The greatest literary characterization of the fool is found in William Shakespeare’s King Lear.

fool's gold See pyrite

foot In measurement, any of numerous lineal measures (commonly 9.8- 13.4 in. [25-34 cm]) based on the length of the human foot. It is used exclusively in English-speaking countries. In most countries and in all scientific applications, the foot (with its multiples and subdivisions) has been superseded by the metre. In the U.S. the definition of the foot as exactly 30.48 cm took effect in 1959. See also inch; International System of Units; yard.

foot End part of the leg, consisting of the heel, arch, and toes, on which a person stands. Its major function is locomotion. The human foot can¬ not grasp and is adapted for running and striding (a step unique to humans that can cover great distances with minimal energy expenditure). Its arched structure helps it support the body’s weight. See also podiatry.

foot, metrical Basic unit of verse metre. Any of various fixed combi¬ nations or groups of stressed and unstressed (or long and short) syllables comprise a foot. The prevailing kind and number of feet determines the metre of a poem. The most common feet in English verse are the iamb, an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable; the trochee, a stressed fol¬ lowed by an unstressed syllable; the anapest, two unstressed syllables fol¬ lowed by a stressed syllable; and the dactyl, a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. See also PROSODY.

Foot, Michael (b. July 23, 1913,

Plymouth, Devon, Eng.) Leader of Great Britain’s Labour Party (1980—

83). He worked as a newspaper edi¬ tor and columnist (1937-74) and served in Parliament (1945-55,

1960-92). He served in Harold Wil¬ son’s cabinet as secretary of state for employment (1974-76) and leader of the House of Commons (1976-79).

A left-wing socialist, Foot became the party’s chief in 1980 by defeat¬ ing its right-wing candidate. This and other left-wing trends caused some Labourites to resign to found the Social Democratic Party. His books include Aneurin Bevan (2 vol.;

1962, 1973).

foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) or hoof-and-mouth disease Highly contagious viral disease of cloven-footed mammals (including cattle), spread by inges¬ tion and inhalation. The afflicted ani¬ mal develops fever and painful blisters on the tongue, lips, other tis¬ sues of the mouth, muzzle or snout, teats, and feet. FMD is endemic in many places. Because of its rapid spread and impact on animal produc¬ tivity, it is considered the most eco¬ nomically devastating livestock disease in the world. It is not a human health hazard. No effective treatment exists; vaccines control epidemics but have not eliminated them. Since the virus can persist, quarantine, slaughter, cremation or burial of car¬ casses, and decontamination must be rigorous. Strict surveillance has kept North America largely FMD-free

since 1929. In early 2001 a major outbreak occurred in the United King¬ dom, followed shortly by outbreaks in The Netherlands and France.

football or association football or soccer Game in which two 11-member teams try to propel a ball into the opposing team’s goal, using any part of the body except the hands and arms. Only the goalkeeper, when positioned within the penalty area in front of the goal, may use hands and arms. The game’s first uniform set of rules was put in place in 1863, when England’s Football Association was created. Professional leagues began appearing in the late 1880s, first in England and then in other countries. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in 1904, and has hosted the World Cup every four years since 1930. Football has been included in the Olympic Games since 1908. Now played on all continents in over 150 nations, with over 40 million registered players, it is the world’s most popular ball game. See also Australian Rules football; Gaelic football; football, gridiron; and rugby.

football, gridiron Game played, predominantly in the U.S. and Canada, on a rectangular field having two goalposts at each end. In the U.S. it is played between two teams of 11 players each. The object is to get an oblong ball, in possession of one side at a time, over a goal line or between goalposts by running, passing, or kicking. A team must advance the ball 10 yards in four attempts (called downs) in order to continue to have the ball for another four downs. A kick through the goalposts (field goal) counts as three points. A run or completed pass over the goal line (touchdown) counts as six points. Following a touchdown, a team may attempt to kick the ball through the goalposts for one additional point or

12 yd (11 m) 10 yd (9.1 m) radius 20 yd (18.3 m)

A professional football (soccer) field. International rules allow for variations in the overall field dimensions, but the touch lines must be longer than the goal lines. Play begins with a kickoff at the center line. When the ball is driven across the touch line, it is put back in play by a throw-in by the opposing side. A ball driven over the goal line but not into the goal by the attacking team is returned to play with a goal kick by the opposing goalkeeper. A player fouled in the penalty area is awarded a penalty kick at the goal, which is defended only by the goalkeeper. Within the goal area the goalkeeper may use his hands to stop and hold the ball.

An American professional football field. The standard college field is nearly identical but has a wider inbounds zone. When¬ ever the ball is downed in a side zone, it is put in play on the next down at the nearest inbounds line. The line marking the end zone (within which the ball may be caught) is the goal line.

Foote ► Ford I 691

to run or pass the ball over the goal line for two additional points. Grid¬ iron football (so-called because of the markings on the field), derived from rugby and soccer (see football), emerged in the late 19th century as a col¬ legiate sport; the early rules were mostly written by representatives from Yale, Harvard, and Princeton universities. Each year the college football season concludes with a host of bowl games held on and around New Year’s Day. Professional football began in the 1890s but did not become a major sport until after World War II. The National Football League was formed in 1922. The NFL is now divided into an American and a National conference; the conference winners compete for the Super Bowl champi¬ onship. A Football Hall of Fame is located in Canton, Ohio, U.S. Cana¬ dian football differs from U.S. football principally by having 12 players on a team rather than 11, employing a larger field, and allowing only three downs to move the ball 10 yards. These variations allow for a more wide- open style of game, with an emphasis on passing. See also Canadian Football League.

Foote, (Albert) Horton (b. March 14, 1916, Wharton, Texas, U.S.) U.S. dramatist. He studied acting at the Pasadena Playhouse in Califor¬ nia and in New York City. He is probably best known for his screenplays for To Kill a Mockingbird (1962, Academy Award) and Tender Mercies (1983, Academy Award). He also wrote an acclaimed series of nine plays about rural Texas, the “Orphans’ Home” Cycle; these include Valentine’s Day (1980), 1918 (1982), and The Widow Claire (1986). His low-key but insightful play The Young Man from Atlanta (1994) won the Pulitzer Prize.

footlights Row of lights set across the front of a stage floor to light the scene. The oil lamps and candles in use in the 17th century eventually gave way to gas and electricity. As more advanced overhead lighting techniques were developed, footlights became less necessary, except to create special shadows on actors’ faces.

forage \'for-ij\ Vegetable food, including corn and hay, of wild or domestic animals. Harvested, processed, and stored forage is called silage. Forage should be harvested in early maturity to avoid a decrease in pro¬ tein and fibre content as crops mature.

Forbes, Edward (b. Feb. 12, 1815, Douglas, Isle of Man—d. Nov. 18, 1854, near Edinburgh, Scot.) British naturalist. After studying medicine, he left the field to devote himself to natural history. He conducted exten¬ sive research on mollusks and sea stars, participating in dredgings and expeditions. While studying ocean life, he developed an interest in the geographic distribution of animals. Later he divided the plants of Britain into five well-defined groups, maintaining that most of them, like land animals, had migrated to the islands over continuous land during three separate periods: before, during, and after the glacial passage. He held numerous institutional and academic posts, and he was a major figure in establishing the fields of oceanography, biogeography, and paleoecology.

Forbes family U.S. publishing family. Bertie Charles Forbes (1880- 1954) emigrated from Scotland to the U.S. in 1904. He founded Forbes magazine, a business and finance magazine, in 1916. He became a U.S. citizen in 1917. His son, Malcolm S. Forbes (1919-90), was decorated for his service in World War II, and he later took over the publishing busi¬ ness, then foundering, turning it into a success. He ran unsuccessfully in New Jersey’s 1957 gubernatorial election. His colourful lifestyle— marked by lavish parties, motorcycling with Elizabeth Taylor, and sail¬ ing in hot air balloons—was celebrated in Forbes magazine and in books both by him and about him. On his death, his eldest son, Malcolm S. (“Steve”) Forbes, Jr. (b. 1947), took over the magazine, assisted by his three brothers. He tried unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for U.S. president in 1996 and 2000.

Forbidden City Imperial Palace complex in Beijing, containing hun¬ dreds of buildings and some 9,000 rooms. It served the emperors of China from 1421 to 1911. No commoner or foreigner was allowed to enter it without special permission. The moated palaces, with their golden tiled roofs and red pillars, are surrounded by high walls with a tower on each comer. The palaces consist of the outer throne halls and an inner court¬ yard, each palace forming an architectural whole. North of the front gate, a great courtyard lies beyond five marble bridges. Farther north, raised on a marble terrace, is the massive, double-tiered Hall of Supreme Harmony, once the throne hall, one of the largest wooden structures in China. The palaces and buildings are now public museums.

Forcados River \for-'ka-d6s\ River, southern Nigeria. A navigable channel of the Niger River, it leaves the main course of the Niger about

20 mi (32 km) downstream from Aboh and flows 123 mi (198 km) west¬ erly to the Bight of Benin. Since c. 1900 it has been the chief link for small-ship traffic between the Niger and the Gulf of Guinea.

force Action that tends to maintain or alter the position of a body or to distort it. It is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. Force is commonly explained in terms of Newton's laws of motion. All known natural forces can be traced to the fundamental interactions. Force is measured in newtons (N); a force of 1 N will accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/sec/sec. See also centrifugal force; Coriolis force; electro¬ magnetic force; electric force; magnetic force; strong force; weak force.

Force Acts Series of four acts passed by the U.S. Congress (1870-75) to protect the rights guaranteed to blacks by the 14th and 15th Amend¬ ments to the Constitution of the United States. The acts authorized federal authorities to penalize any interference with the registration, voting, officeholding, or jury service of blacks. Violations produced over 5,000 indictments and 1,250 convictions throughout the South. The Supreme Court later ruled sections of the acts unconstitutional.

Ford, Ford Madox orig. Ford Hermann Hueffer Vhwof-orV (b. Dec. 17, 1873, Merton, Surrey, Eng.—d. June 26, 1939, Deauville, France) English novelist, editor, and critic. Ford collaborated with Joseph Conrad on The Inheritors (1901) and Romance (1903). As the founder of the English Review (1908), he generously encouraged younger writers. He was gassed and shell-shocked in World War I; after the war he changed his name to Ford. Of more than 70 published works, his best known are The Good Soldier (1915), a novel about the demise of aristocratic England; and the tetralogy Parade’s End— Some Do Not (1924), No More Parades (1925), A Man Could Stand Up (1926), and Last Post (1928)— which explores the breakdown of Edwardian culture and the emergence of new values.

Ford, Gerald R. in full Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. orig. Leslie Lynch King, Jr. (b. July 14, 1913, Omaha, Neb., U.S.) 38th president of the U.S. (1974-77). While he was still an infant, his parents were divorced; his mother later married Gerald R. Ford, Sr., who adopted the boy and gave him his name. He received degrees from the University of Michigan and Yale Law School (1941). He joined the Navy during World War II and served in the South Pacific, attaining the rank of lieutenant commander. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives for 25 years (1948-73), becoming Republican minority leader in 1965. After Spiro Agnew resigned as vice president in 1973, Richard Nixon nominated Ford to fill the vacant post. When the Watergate scandal forced Nixon to resign. Ford became the first president who had not been elected to either the vice presidency or the presidency. A month later he pardoned Nixon; to counter widespread out¬ rage, he voluntarily appeared before a House subcommittee to explain his action. His administration gradually lowered the country’s high rate of inflation by slowing down the economy, though at the cost of a severe recession (1974-75) and high unemployment. Ford had a tense relationship with the Democrat-controlled Congress, vetoing more than 50 bills (more than 40 were sustained). In September 1975 he was twice the target of assassination attempts. In the final days of the Vietnam War, he ordered an airlift of 237,000 anti-communist Vietnamese refugees, most of whom came to the U.S. The public’s revulsion at the events of Watergate contrib¬ uted to his narrow defeat by Jimmy Carter in 1976.

Ford, Harrison (b. July 13, 1942, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. film actor. He played minor roles on screen and television before achieving stardom in George Lucas’s hit Star Wars (1977) and its sequels, The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983). He also starred in the adven¬ ture film Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and its sequels (1984, 1989). He graduated to dramatic roles in Blade Runner (1982), Witness (1985), The Fugitive (1993), and Clear and Present Danger (1994). His rugged good looks and wry charm made him, by some measures, the most popular actor of his time.

Ford, Henry (b. July 30, 1863, Wayne county, Mich., U.S.—d. April 7, 1947, Dearborn, Mich.) U.S. industrialist and pioneer automobile manufacturer. Ford worked his way up from a machinist’s apprentice (at age 15) to the post of chief engineer at the Edison Company in Detroit. He built his first experimental car in 1896. In 1903, with several partners, he formed the Ford Motor Company. In 1908 he designed the Model T; demand became so great that Ford developed new mass-production meth¬ ods, including the first moving assembly line in 1913. He developed the Model A in 1928 to replace the Model T, and in 1932 he introduced the V-8 engine. He observed an eight-hour workday and paid his workers far

692 i Ford ► foreign workers

above the average, holding that well-paid labourers become the consum¬ ers that industrialists require, but strenuously opposed labour unions. As the first to make car ownership affordable to large numbers of Americans, he exerted a vast and permanent influence on American life. See also Ford Foundation.

Ford, John orig. Sean Aloysius O'Feeney or O'Fearna (b. Feb. 1, 1895, Cape Elizabeth, Maine, U.S.—d. Aug. 31, 1973, Palm Desert, Calif.) U.S. film director. In 1914 Ford went to Hollywood to join his brother, who was there acting in films. Ford became a director of west¬ erns, achieving success with The Iron Horse (1924). His distinctive style united action with colourful characterization and reflected his sense of American identity. He is best remembered for such westerns as Stage¬ coach (1939), My Darling Clementine (1946), She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962), many of which starred John Wayne. He also directed such historical dramas as Mary of Scotland (1936) and Young Mr. Lincoln (1939). He received Academy Awards for The Informer (1935), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), How Green Was My Valley (1941), and The Quiet Man (1952), and also for his war¬ time documentaries The Battle of Midway (1942) and December 7th

(1943).

Ford, John (baptized April 17, 1586, Ilsington, Devon, Eng.—d. 1639?) British dramatist. Early in his career he studied law and wrote collabo- ratively with several other playwrights, but little more is known of his life, and the dating of many of his works is uncertain. His revenge trag¬ edies are characterized by scenes of austere beauty, insight into human passions, and poetic diction of a high order. His reputation rests on the first four plays he wrote alone, only one of which can be dated with cer¬ tainty: The Broken Heart’, The Lover’s Melancholy (1628); Perkin War- beck ; and ’Tis Pity She’s a Whore, an eloquently sympathetic story of incestuous lovers that is his best-known work.

Ford, Richard (b. Feb. 16, 1944, Jackson, Miss., U.S.) U.S. novelist and short-story writer. His first novel, A Piece of My Heart (1976), showed the influence of William Faulkner. The Sportswriter (1986) and its sequel, Independence Day (1995, Pulitzer Prize), drew on his experience as a writer for a sports magazine in the 1980s. His story collection Rock Springs (1987) examines the lives of the lonely and alienated.

Ford, Tennessee Ernie orig. Ernest Jennings (b. Feb. 13, 1919, Bristol, Tenn., U.S.—d. Oct. 17, 1991, Reston, Va.) U.S. country music singer. He studied music in Cincinnati. After World War II he worked in radio in the Los Angeles area and soon signed a recording contract with Capitol. His “Mule Train” and “Shot Gun Boogie” made him famous by 1951. He became a staple on the Grand Ole Opry and had many cross¬ over hits, including “Sixteen Tons” and “Ballad of Davy Crockett.” He later switched his emphasis to gospel music; his 1957 album Hymns enjoyed great success. He continued recording into the 1970s.

Ford Foundation U.S. philanthropic foundation. It was established in 1936 with gifts and bequests from Henry Ford and his son, Edsel (1893— 1943). By the early 21st century its assets exceeded $10 billion. Its chief concerns have been international affairs (particularly population control and alleviation of food shortages), humanities and the arts, communica¬ tions (especially public television), and, in later years, resources and the environment.

Ford Motor Co. U.S. automotive corporation. Founded in Detroit, Mich., in 1903 by Henry Ford and a group of investors, the company introduced the hugely successful Model T in 1908 and by 1923 was pro¬ ducing more than half of all U.S. automotive vehicles. Through the Lin¬ coln Motor Co. (acquired in 1922), Ford produced luxury Lincolns and Continentals. After years of declining sales, the Model T was succeeded by the Model A in 1927; other companies such as General Motors took the opportunity to make serious inroads into Ford’s dominance. The com¬ pany was reincorporated in 1919, with Ford and his family acquiring full ownership. Henry’s son Edsel served as president 1919—43, and Henry’s grandson Henry Ford II led the company 1945-79, reviving its fortunes considerably. Its stock was first publicly traded in 1956. Ford acquired the British automaker Jaguar in 1989-90, bought the rental car company Hertz Corp. in 1994, and purchased the automobile division of Volvo in 1999. Later acquisitions included Aston Martin and the Land Rover brand of sport utility vehicles. Ford also owns a significant share of the Mazda Motor Corp. The company manufactures passenger cars, trucks, and trac¬ tors as well as parts and accessories.

foreclosure Legal proceeding by which a borrower’s rights to a mort¬ gaged property may be extinguished if the borrower fails to live up to the obligations agreed to in the loan contract. The lender may then declare the entire debt due and owing and may seek to satisfy it by foreclosing. Foreclosure is commonly by a court-decreed sale of the property to the highest bidder, who is often the lender. See also mortgage.

foreign aid Transfer of capital, goods, or services from one country to another. Foreign aid may be given in the form of capital transfers or tech¬ nical assistance and training for either civilian or military purposes. Its use in the modern era began in the 18th century, when Prussia subsidized some of its allies. After World War II, foreign aid developed into a more sophisticated instrument of foreign policy. International organizations, such as the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, were created to provide aid to war-ravaged countries and newly freed colonies. Foreign aid is often given with conditions attached, such as the require¬ ment that all or part of it be used to buy goods from the donor country. See also International Monetary Fund; Marshall Plan; World Bank.

foreign exchange Purchase or sale of one national currency in exchange for another nation’s currency, usually conducted in a market setting. Foreign exchange makes possible international transactions such as imports and exports and the movement of capital between countries. The value of one foreign currency in relation to another is defined by the EXCHANGE RATE.

Foreign Legion French Legion Etrangere. French military corps consisting originally of foreigners but now including many Frenchmen. It was founded in 1831 as a highly disciplined professional army to help control French colonies in Africa. Since its founding, it has been in almost continuous combat; its forces have fought or been stationed in such places as Europe, the Crimea, Mexico, Syria, and Indochina. The new volunteer swears to serve not France but the legion; after serving one enlistment (five years) with good conduct, foreign-born soldiers are eligible for French citizenship. Since it keeps a volunteer’s past secret, it has been romanticized as a haven for those seeking new identities, including crimi¬ nals, but most legionnaires are professional soldiers who enjoy combat. Originally headquartered in Algeria, the legion moved its headquarters to France after Algerian independence.

Foreign Ministers, Council of Organization of the foreign ministers of the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union—the World War II Allied Powers. In meetings between 1945 and 1972, they attempted to reach postwar political agreements. They produced treaties of peace with Italy, Hungary, Romania, Finland, and Bulgaria and resolved the Trieste prob¬ lem in 1946. They convened the Geneva Conference on the Korean War in 1954, and in 1955 agreed on an Austrian treaty. They recessed after failing to agree on German unification in 1959; in 1972 they paved the way for both East and West Germany to enter the UN.

foreign policy General objectives that guide the activities and rela¬ tionships of one state in its interactions with other states. The develop¬ ment of foreign policy is influenced by domestic considerations, the policies or behaviour of other states, or plans to advance specific geopo¬ litical designs. Leopold von Ranke emphasized the primacy of geography and external threats in shaping foreign policy, but later writers empha¬ sized domestic factors. Diplomacy is the tool of foreign policy, and war, alliances, and international trade may all be manifestations of it.

foreign service or diplomatic service Staff of a state’s international-affairs department that represents the state’s interests in for¬ eign countries. It fulfills two functions, diplomatic and consular. The stan¬ dards for foreign-service jobs are similar in most countries. Before the 20th century, wealth, aristocratic standing, and political connections were the chief requirements for high-ranking diplomatic positions. Political appointees still hold the top positions in many foreign missions, but their subordinates generally must demonstrate their education and intellectual ability through a competitive examination. Foreign-service personnel have special legal rights (e.g., they do not have to pay taxes to their host country). See also ambassador.

foreign workers Those who work in a foreign country without ini¬ tially intending to settle there and without the benefits of citizenship in the host country. Some are recruited to supplement the workforce of a host country for a limited term or to provide skills on a contractual basis that the host country seeks. Others are recruited directly by a private employer, which may need to certify that it cannot find workers among the coun-

Foreman ► form I 693

try’s own citizens. Host countries may also import foreign workers for jobs their citizens refuse to do. Large influxes of foreign workers can awaken xenophobia, particularly when the host country’s population is ethnically and culturally homogeneous and the foreign workers’ culture and appearance are significantly different or when economic downturns heighten the tendency to assign blame to others.

Foreman, George (b. Jan. 10, 1949, Marshall, Texas, U.S.) U.S. boxer. Foreman grew up in Houston, Texas, and learned to box in a U.S. Job Corps camp in Oregon. He won the Olympic gold medal in heavy¬ weight boxing in 1968. His first world heavyweight title victory was his second-round knockout of Joe Frazier in 1973. He had won all 40 of his professional bouts, many by knockout, before he fell in eight rounds to Muhammad Ali in 1974 in the so-called “Rumble in the Jungle” in Kin¬ shasa, Zaire, one of the most famous matches in modern boxing history. He retired in 1978 but began a remarkable comeback in 1987 at age 38; he regained the title in 10 rounds against Michael Moorer in 1994 to become, at 45, the oldest titleholder ever. He announced his retirement again the next year but fought a few more times in 1996-97. He has been an ordained minister since 1977.

forensic medicine Science of applying medical knowledge to legal questions, recognized as a specialty since the early 19th century. Its pri¬ mary tool has always been the autopsy, to identify the dead (e.g., plane- crash victims) or determine cause of death, which can significantly affect trials dealing with insurance and inheritance. Forensic psychiatry deter¬ mines the mental health of an individual about to stand trial. Forensic genetics allows paternity to be determined and can identify blood or other tissue samples as coming from a particular person (see DNA fingerprint¬ ing). Forensic toxicology, concerned with such topics as intentional poi¬ sonings and drug use, is increasingly important in cases of industrial and environmental poisoning.

forensic psychology Application of psychology to legal issues, often for the purpose of offering expert testimony in a courtroom. In civil and criminal cases, forensic psychologists may evaluate individuals to deter¬ mine questions such as competency to stand trial, relationship of a men¬ tal disorder to an accident or crime, and potential for future dangerous behaviour. In addition to conducting interviews and administering psycho¬ logical tests, they usually gather a forensic history, which includes infor¬ mation such as hospital records, police reports, and statements of witnesses. They are also expected to have a grasp of relevant legal ques¬ tions. In a child-custody case, a forensic psychologist may be asked to evaluate home environments, parents, and the character of the child in order to recommend a custody decision in the child’s best interests.

forest Complex ecosystem in which trees are the dominant life-form. Tree-dominated forests can occur wherever the temperatures rise above 50 °F (10 °C) in the warmest months and the annual precipitation is more than 8 in. (200 mm). They can develop under various conditions within these limits, and the kind of soil, plant, and animal life differs according to the extremes of environmental influences. In cool, high-latitude sub¬ polar regions, taiga (boreal) forests are dominated by hardy conifers. In more temperate high-latitude climates, mixed forests of both conifers and broad-leaved deciduous trees predominate. Broad-leaved deciduous forests develop in midlatitude climates. In humid equatorial climates, tropical rainforests develop. There heavy rainfall supports evergreens that have broad leaves instead of the needle leaves of cooler evergreen forests. Having extensive vertical layering, forests are among the most complex ecosystems. Conifer forests have the simplest structure: a tree layer, a shrub layer that is spotty or even absent, and a ground layer covered with lichens, Mosses, and liverworts. Deciduous forests are more complex (the tree canopy is divided into an upper and lower story), and rainforest canopies are divided into at least three layers. Forest animals have highly developed hearing, and many are adapted for vertical movement through the environment. Because food other than ground plants is scarce, many ground-dwelling animals use forests only for shelter. The forest is nature’s most efficient ecosystem, with a high rate of photosynthesis affecting both plant and animal systems in complex organic relationships.

Forest, Lee De See Lee De Forest

Forester, C(ecil) S(cott) (b. Aug. 27, 1899, Cairo, Egypt—d. April 2, 1966, Fullerton, Calif., U.S.) British novelist and journalist. Forester abandoned medicine for writing and achieved success with his first novel, Payment Deferred (1926). He is best known as the creator of the naval officer Horatio Hornblower, whose rise from midshipman to admiral and

peer during the Napoleonic Wars is told in 12 novels published 1937-67. Many of his novels were adapted into movies, including The African Queen (1935; film, 1951).

forestry Management of forested land (see forest), together with asso¬ ciated waters and wasteland, primarily for harvesting timber but also for conservation and recreation purposes. The science of forestry is built around the principle of multiple-use land management, though the harvest¬ ing and replanting of timber are the primary activities. The main objective is to maintain a continuous supply of timber through carefully planned har¬ vest and replacement. The forest manager is also responsible for the appli¬ cation of other land controls, including the protection of wildlife and the implementation of programs to protect the forest from weeds, insects, fun¬ gal diseases (see fungus), erosion, and fire. The planned management of forests originated in early medieval Europe, where laws regulated the fell¬ ing of timber and the use of forests for hunting. In the 19th century private forestry schools were established in Europe; and in 1891 the U.S. govern¬ ment authorized its first reserves of forested land. During the 20th century many nations have undertaken reforestation or afforestation programs.

forge Open furnace for heating metal ore and metal for working and form¬ ing, or a workshop containing forge hearths and related equipment. From earliest times, smiths (see smithing) heated iron in forges and formed it by hammering on an anvil. A bellows operated by an assistant or by a foot treadle provided the forced draft for raising the temperature of the fire. Later, a waterwheel or animal power was often used to operate the bellows; modern forges have mechanically powered bellows or rotary blowers.

forgery In law, the making of a false writing with the intent to defraud. “Writing” need not be handwriting: the law of forgery also covers print¬ ing, engraving, and keyboarding. Counterfeiting is usually regarded as a specific type of forgery. Checks, negotiable instruments, contracts, wills, and deeds are examples of documents that may be forged. Evidence may also be forged. Forgery requires fraudulent intent; it is not forgery to sign another’s name, fill in blanks, or alter a genuine writing in the honest, though mistaken, belief that such conduct is authorized.

forget-me-not Any of about 50 species of plants that make up the genus Myosotis, in the borage fam¬ ily, native to temperate Eurasia and North America and to mountains of the Old World tropics. Some are favoured as garden plants for their clusters of blue flowers. The woods forget-me-not (M. sylvatica), like most other species, changes colour from pink to blue as the tubular, flar¬ ing, five-lobed flower matures.

forging In metallurgy, the process of shaping metal and increasing its strength by hammering or pressing.

In most forging an upper die is forced against a heated workpiece posi¬ tioned on a stationary lower die. To increase the force of the blow, power is sometimes applied to augment gravity. The number of blows struck is carefully gauged by the operator to give maximum effect with mini¬ mum wear on the die. Forging presses employ hydraulic or mechanical pressure instead of blows; most can exert only a few hundred tons of pressure, but giant presses, used for forging parts of jet aircraft, are capable of up to 50,000 tons of pressure. See also drop forging.

form In the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle the active, determining principle of a thing. The term was traditionally used to translate Plato’s eidos, by which he meant the permanent reality that makes a thing what it is, in contrast to the particulars that are finite and subject to change. Each form is the pattern of a particular category of thing in the world; thus, there are forms of human, stone, shape, colour, beauty, and justice. Whereas the physical world, perceived with the senses, is in constant flux and knowledge derived from it restricted and variable, the realm of forms, apprehensible only by the mind, is eternal and changeless. Particular things derive what reality they have by “participating” in, or imperfectly copying, the forms. Aristotle rejected the abstract Platonic notion of form and argued that every sensible object consists of both matter and form, neither of which can exist without the other. For Aristotle, the matter of

Woods forget-me-not [Myosotis sylvat¬ ica)

INGMAR HOLMASEN

694 i formal system ► Forster

a thing consists of those of its elements which, when the thing has come into being, may be said to have “become” it; the form of a thing is the arrangement or organization through which such elements have become the thing in question. Thus a certain lump of bronze is the matter that, given a certain form, becomes a statue or, given another, becomes a sword. The Aristotelian concept of form was adapted and developed by St. Tho¬ mas Aquinas and other scholastic philosophers. The Enlightenment phi¬ losopher Immanuel Kant used the notion of form to describe the mentally imposed conditions of sensible experience, namely space and time.

formal system In logic, a formal language together with a deductive apparatus by which some well-formed formulas can be derived from oth¬ ers. Each formal system has a formal language composed of primitive symbols that figure in certain rules of formation (statements concerning the expressions allowable in the system) and a set of theorems developed by inference from a set of axioms. In an axiomatic system, the primitive symbols are undefined and all other symbols are defined in terms of them. In Euclidean geometry, for example, such concepts as “point,” “line,” and “lies on” are usually posited as primitive terms. From the primitive sym¬ bols, certain formulas are defined as well formed, some of which are listed as axioms; and rules are stated for inferring one formula as a conclusion from one or more other formulas taken as premises. A theorem within such a system is a formula capable of proof through a finite sequence of well-formed formulas, each of which either is an axiom or is validly inferred from earlier formulas.

formaldehyde \f6r-'mal-d3- l h!d\ or methanol Vme-tho-.nalX Sim¬ plest aldehyde, chemical formula HCHO. Formaldehyde (37%) in water solution, called formalin, is used as a preservative, an embalming agent, and a disinfectant. Large amounts of formaldehyde are used in the manu¬ facture of various familiar plastics. Bakelite (the first completely synthetic plastic) is the trademark for formaldehyde and phenol polymer, and For¬ mica is the trademark for formaldehyde and urea polymer. The reaction of formaldehyde with proteins (called amino formylation) leads to its use in the tanning industry and for treating various vegetable proteins to ren¬ der them fibrous.

formalism See New Criticism

Formalism or Russian Formalism Russian school of literary criti¬ cism that flourished from 1914 to 1928. Making use of the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, Formalists were concerned with what technical devices make a literary text literary, apart from its psychologi¬ cal, sociological, biographical, and historical elements. Though influenced by the Symbolist movement, they sought to make their analyses more objec¬ tive and scientific than those of the Symbolists. The movement was con¬ demned by the Soviet authorities in 1929 for its lack of political perspective. Later it became influential in the West, notably in New Criti¬ cism and STRUCTURALISM.

Forman, Milos (b. Feb. 18, 1932, Caslav, Czech.) Czech-U.S. film director. He began his career as a scriptwriter, then directed his first fea¬ ture film in 1964. Success followed with the ironic comedies Loves of a Blonde (1965) and The Fireman’s Ball (1967). He moved to the U.S. in 1969 and successfully applied his light touch to the generation gap in Taking Off (1911), then triumphed with One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975, Academy Award). He directed successful screen adaptations of theE.L. Doctorow novel Ragtime (1981) and the stage play Amadeus (1984, Academy Award); his later films include Valmont (1989) and The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996).

formes fixes \'f6rm-'feks\ Principal forms of music and poetry in 14th- and 15th-century France. Three forms predominated. The rondeau fol¬ lowed the pattern ABaAabAB\ A (a) and B (b) represent repeated musical phrases; capital letters indicate repetition of text in a refrain, while low¬ ercase letters indicate new text. The ballade employed the pattern aabC. The virelai used the pattern AbbaA. The trouvere Adam de la Halle (b. c. 1250) wrote the first polyphonic settings of the formes fixes. Guillaume de Machaut wrote both text and music for many monophonic and polyphonic chansons in the formes fixes. Later composers, including Guillaume Dufay, favoured the rondeau.

formic acid Simplest carboxylic acid, chemical formula HCOOH. It is secreted by some insects, especially red ants (its name comes from the Latin word for ant), in their bite or sting. It has many industrial uses, in textile and leather manufacture, as an industrial solvent, and as an inter¬ mediate.

Formosa See Taiwan Formosa Strait See Taiwan Strait

formula weight Sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in a chemical formula. The term is generally applied to a substance that consists of ions (see ionic bond) rather than individual molecules (and thus does not have a molecular weight). An example of such a substance is sodium chloride (table salt). Such a substance’s chemical formula describes the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of the constituent elements. See also stoichi¬ ometry.

Fornes Vfor-nas\, Maria Irene (b. May 14, 1930, Havana, Cuba) Cuban-born U.S. dramatist. Her family moved to the U.S. in 1945, and she became a painter before beginning to write plays in the early 1960s. She wrote some 35 stage works and directed her own works as well as classic drama. Her innovative dramas have made her one of the most suc¬ cessful and frequently produced of Off Broadway playwrights. Her best- known play, Fefu and Her Friends (1977), explores women’s relationships with one another.

Forrest, Edwin (b. March 9, 1806, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Dec. 12, 1872, Philadelphia) U.S. actor. He made his stage debut in Philadel¬ phia in 1820. He played Othello in New York (1826) to great acclaim and became known for his Shakespearean roles. His feud with the English actor William Macready sparked the so-called Astor Place riot (1849), in which Forrest’s supporters mobbed the theatre where Macready was appearing. The militia was called out, the rioters attacked, and the militia fired, killing 22 and wounding 36. Forrest’s reputation never fully recov¬ ered; it was further damaged when he filed a divorce suit on grounds of adultery.

Forrestal, James V(incent) (b. Feb. 15, 1892, Beacon, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 22, 1949, Bethesda, Md.) U.S. secretary of defense (1947- 49). After serving in naval aviation in World War I, he resumed his con¬ nection with a New York City investment firm, of which he became president in 1938. Appointed undersecretary of the navy in 1940, he directed the huge naval expansion and procurement programs of World War II. He became secretary of the navy in 1944. Appointed the first sec¬ retary of defense in 1947, he began to reorganize and coordinate the armed services. He resigned in 1949. Suffering from a depression similar to battle fatigue, he entered Bethesda Naval Medical Center; soon after, he plunged to his death from a window.

Forrester, Jay Wright (b. July 14, 1918, Anselmo, Neb., U.S.) U.S. electrical engineer and management expert. He taught and conducted research at MIT, where in 1945 he founded the Digital Computer Labo¬ ratory. There he invented the magnetic core random-access memory (RAM) used in digital computers for information storage. At MIT’s Sloan School of Management (from 1956), he applied computer simulation to real-world relationships, such as the flow of materials in a factory, by feeding a series of interconnected equations to a computer.

Forssmann Vfors-.manV, Werner (b. Aug. 20, 1904, Berlin, Ger.—d. June 1, 1979, Schopfheim, W.Ger.) German surgeon. He shared with Andre Cournand and Dickinson W. Richards (1895-1973) a 1956 Nobel Prize for contributions to the development of cardiac catheterization. He used himself as the first human sub¬ ject, watching the progress of the catheter in a mirror in front of a fluo- roscope screen. Severely criticized for this, he abandoned cardiology for urology. His procedure, put into practice by Richards and Cournand, has become an invaluable diagnostic and research tool.

Forster, E(dward) M(organ)

(b. Jan. 1, 1879, London, Eng.—d.

June 7, 1970, Coventry, War'wick- shire) British writer. Forster was bom into an upper-middle-class fam¬ ily. He attended the University of Cambridge and from roughly 1907 was a member of the informal Bloomsbury group. His early works include Where Angels Fear to Tread BBC hulton picture ubrary (1905), The Longest Journey (1907),

E.M. Forster

forsterite-fayalite ► Forth I 695

A Room with a View (1908), and his first major success, Howards End (1910), novels that show his acute observation of middle-class life and its values. After periods in India and Alexandria, he wrote his finest novel, A Passage to India (1924), examining the failure of human understand¬ ing between ethnic and social groups under British rule. Maurice , a novel with a homosexual theme written in 1913, appeared posthumously. Aspects of the Novel (1927) is a classic discussion of aesthetics and the creative process. Awarded an honorary fellowship in 1946 at Cambridge, he lived there until his death.

forsterite-fayalite Vfor-stor-.It-fi-'a-.llA series Most important min¬ erals in the olivine family and possibly the most important constituents of the Earth’s mantle. These minerals occur as green to yellow, glassy crys¬ tals in many basic and ultrabasic rocks (see acid and basic rocks) and are also abundant in chondritic meteorites. They also occur in dolomitic lime¬ stones, marbles, and metamorphosed iron-rich sediments. They are some¬ times used in the manufacture of brick.

forsythia \for-'si-the-9\ Any of the seven species of ornamental shrubs that make up the genus Forsythia , in the olive family, native to eastern Europe and East Asia. In some species the yellow flowers borne along the stems appear before the leaves in early spring. The narrow leaves occa¬ sionally have three parts; the star-shaped flowers have four. Common for¬ sythia ( F. intermedia ) has arching stems to about 20 ft (6 m) and bright yellow flowers.

Fort Knox U.S. military reservation, northern Kentucky, U.S., south¬ west of Louisville. Occupying an area of 110,000 acres (44,510 hectares), it was established in 1918 as Camp Knox and became a permanent mili¬ tary post in 1932. The U.S. Gold Bullion Depository, a bombproof struc¬ ture protected by elaborate security devices, was built there in 1936 to hold the bulk of the country’s gold. Since 1940 it has been the U.S. Army Armor Headquarters and the site of associated training schools.

Fort-La my See N'Djamena

Fort Lauderdale City (pop., 2000: 152,397), southeastern Florida, U.S. It is located on the Atlantic Ocean, 25 mi (40 km) north of Miami. A fort built there in 1838 gave its name to the town, which was established in 1895 and later developed as a shipping and commercial centre and residential resort. The Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway is connected to the city’s deepwater port, Port Everglades. The city is interlaced with recre¬ ational waterways and has extensive boating facilities, which have given rise to a marine industry.

Fort Matanzas National Monument National reserve, northeast¬ ern Florida, U.S. Established in 1924 and covering 228 acres (92 hect¬ ares), it centres around a Spanish fort on Rattlesnake Island, 14 mi (23 km) south of St. Augustine. Originating in 1569 as a wooden tower and completed in 1742, the fort is near the site of the slaughter of 300 French Huguenot colonists by Spaniards in 1565.

Fort McHenry Military fort and national monument, Baltimore, Mary¬ land, U.S. During the War of 1812, the British bombarded it in 1814 but failed to capture the city it defended. Francis Scott Key witnessed the battle while being held aboard a British ship, and the sight of the U.S. flag fly¬ ing above the fort inspired him to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.” The fort was used as a federal prison during the American Civil War and then served as a military post until 1900, when it was abandoned. Occupying an area of 43 acres (17 hectares), it was named a national park in 1925 and a national monument in 1939.

Fort Stanwix, Treaties of (1768, 1784) Agreements by which the Iroquois Confederacy ceded land in what is now western Pennsylvania, Kentucky, West Virginia, and New York, opening vast tracts to white exploration and settlement. In 1768 about 3,400 Iroquois gathered at Fort Stanwix (now Rome), N.Y., to sign a new treaty with the British that replaced the Proclamation of 1763. Pressure from white settlers and fur traders for additional land forced the new U.S. government to renegoti¬ ate the treaty. Weakened by the frontier campaign against them during the American Revolution, the Iroquois were persuaded to cede more land and in 1784 to sign the second treaty, also called the Treaty with the Six Nations.

Fort Sumter National Monument Historic site, on a man-made island at the entrance to the harbour of Charleston, South Carolina, U.S. Construction of the fort began in 1829 and was still in progress in 1861, when it became the site of the first engagement (April 12, 1861) of the

American Civil War. The national monument, established in 1948, also includes Fort Moultrie on nearby Sullivan’s Island, site of an American victory against the British (June 28, 1776) in the American Revolution, when the fort was called Fort Sullivan. The Seminole Indian leader Osceola is buried there.

Fort Wayne City (pop., 2000: 205,727), northeastern Indiana, U.S. Once the chief town of the Miami Indians, it was the site of a French trad¬ ing post in the late 17th century. It was taken by the English (1760) and then by Indians under Pontiac (1763). A log stockade built in 1794 by Gen. Anthony Wayne gave the town its name. The city’s industrial growth began with the building of the Wabash and Erie Canal in the 1830s. It now manufactures a range of machinery, including automotive and elec¬ trical equipment. It is the site of educational institutions, including Con¬ cordia Theological Seminary (1846) and St. Francis College (1890). Johnny Appleseed, the pioneer orchard planter, is buried there.

Fort Worth City (pop., 2000: 534,694), northern Texas, U.S. It lies on the Trinity River and constitutes the western part of the Dallas-Fort Worth urban complex. Founded in 1849 as a military outpost against Comanche raids, it was later a stopover point for cattle drives on the Chisholm Trail. It became a cattle-shipping boomtown after the railroad arrived in 1876. Oil finds brought the petroleum-refining industry to Fort Worth in the 1920s, and aircraft manufacturing, which began there during World War II, has expanded to include aerospace and electronic equipment. Fort Worth is the seat of Texas Christian University (1873) and Texas Wes¬ leyan University (1890), and its attractions include the Amon Carter Museum.

Fortaleza \,f6r-t3-'la-z9\ Port city (pop., 2002 est.: 2,219,800), north¬ eastern Brazil. It lies at the mouth of the Pajeu River. Originating as a small village adjoining a Portuguese fort, it took the name of Villa do Forte da Assumpgao in 1654. In 1810 it became the capital of Ceara cap¬ taincy, and in 1823 it was given city status. It became the capital of a province under the name of Fortaleza Nova de Braganga. It is a textile¬ manufacturing centre; its port handles exports.

Fortas, Abe (b. June 19, 1910, Memphis, Tenn., U.S.—d. April 6, 1982, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist. He graduated from Yale University Law School (1933), where he studied under William O. Douglas before fol¬ lowing him to the Securities and Exchange Commission. As cofounder of a major Washington, D.C., law firm (1946), he represented some of the largest U.S. corporations. In 1963 he successfully argued the case of Gideon v. Wainwright, which established the right of the accused to coun¬ sel in criminal trials, regardless of ability to pay. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson, a close friend, nominated Fortas to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1965. Johnson attempted to elevate him to chief justice in 1968, but his nomination faced a filibuster in the Senate, and Fortas requested that his name be withdrawn from consideration. In 1969 Fortas resigned from the Court following a threat of impeachment over his dealings with a fin¬ ancier who was subsequently imprisoned for securities violations.

Fort-de-France \ 1 for-d3- , fra n s\ City (pop., 1999: 94,049), capital of Martinique, West Indies. Located on the island’s western coast, it was for¬ merly called Fort-Royal and has been Martinique’s capital since 1680. Until 1918, when its commercial growth began, it had an inadequate water supply, was partly surrounded by swamps, and was notorious for yellow fever; the swamps have since been drained. It is the French West Indies’ largest town, chief port, and busiest commercial centre and has long shel¬ tered the French fleet in the West Indies. Sugarcane, cacao, and rum are exported.

Fortescue Vfort-s-.skyiiV Sir John (b. c. 1385, Norris, Somerset, Eng.—d. c. 1479, Ebrington, Gloucestershire) English jurist. He served as chief justice of the King’s Bench from 1442. He was the first to state the basic principle that it is better that the guilty escape than that the inno¬ cent be punished. He fled to Scotland after Henry Vi’s defeat in 1461. Hoping for a restoration of the House of Lancaster, he educated Prince Edward in France, and he wrote for Edward’s instruction De laudibus legum Angliae, the first book about law written for the layperson. Return¬ ing to England in 1471, he was captured by Yorkists but was allowed to retire to his home.

Forth, River River, south-central Scotland. It flows east for 116 mi (187 km) from its headwaters on the slopes of Ben Lomond to enter the Firth of Forth, an estuary extending inland from the North Sea for 48 mi (77 km); the estuary varies in width from 1.5 to 17.5 mi (2.4 to 28 km). The

696 i fortification ► Foster

river has a short highland section and a longer lowland section; the lat¬ ter, called the Links of Forth, was the site of the Battle of Bannockburn

(1314).

fortification Structure erected to strengthen a military position against attack. The defense of cities and trade centers, usually by high walls, has been important for centuries. The citadel was the fortress of the ancient world, appearing in cities of Egypt, Greece, and the Roman empire. By Classical Greek times, fortress architecture began incorporating ramparts (walled embankments) and towers. Roman fortresses of the 2nd century tended to be square or rectangular, and were usually of dressed (cut) stone. The medieval castle remained almost impregnable until gunpowder came into use.

FORTRAN Procedural computer programming language developed for numerical analysis by John W. Backus and others at IBM in 1957. The name derives from FORmula TRANslation. For many years it was the most widely used high-level language for scientific and engineering com¬ putations. Though other languages, such as various versions of C, are now popular for such uses, FORTRAN is still the language of choice for numerical analysis. It has been revised several times and now includes capabilities for handling structured data, dynamic (“on-the-fly”) data allo¬ cation, recursions (procedures that call themselves), and other features.

forum In ancient Roman cities, a centrally located open area surrounded by public buildings and colonnades and serving as a multipurpose public gathering place. The forum was an adaptation of the Greek agora and acropolis. In Rome the forum Romanum referred to the flat and for¬ merly marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills. In the Roman republic, this was the site of public meetings, law courts, and gladiatorial games and was lined with shops and open-air markets.

Under the Roman empire, when the forum evolved into a center for reli¬ gious and secular ceremonies and spectacles, it held many of Rome’s most imposing temples, basilicas, and monuments. New forums were built, some devoted to judicial or administrative affairs and some to trade. The aesthetic harmony of Tra¬ jan’s Forum (2nd century ad), with its complex of buildings and court¬ yards and its tiers of shops, influenced many subsequent town planners.

Foscolo Vf6s-ko-lo\, Ugo orig. Niccolo Foscolo (b. Feb. 6, 1778, Zacynthus, Venetian republic—d. Sept. 10, 1827, Turnham Green, near London, Eng.) Italian poet and novelist. His works articulated the feel¬ ings of many Italians during the turbulent epoch of the French Revolu¬ tion, the Napoleonic Wars, and the restoration of Austrian rule. After Austria regained Italy in 1814, Foscolo fled first to Switzerland and then to Britain. His popular novel The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis (1802) bit¬ terly denounced Napoleon’s cession of Venetia to Austria. Among his poems are the patriotic “Dei sepolcri” (1807) and the acclaimed but unfin¬ ished Le grazie (1822).

Fosse \'fos-e\, Bob orig. Robert Louis Fosse (b. June 23, 1927, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 23, 1987, Washington, D.C.) U.S. theatre and film choreographer and director. Bom into a vaudeville family, Fosse began dancing professionally at age 13. He won his first Tony Award for choreographing the Broadway musical The Pajama Game (1954) and went on to win six more Tonys for his choreography, which was known for its sensuality, precision, and jazz sensibility. His later hit shows included Damn Yankees (1955) and Sweet Charity (1966)—both starring his wife, Gwen Verdon (1925—2000)—as well as Pippin (1973) and Dancin’ (1978). He directed the film musical Cabaret (1972, Academy Award); his film All That Jazz (1979) was a thinly disguised autobiogra- phy.

Fossey, Dian (b. Jan. 16,1932, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—found dead Dec. 26, 1985, Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda) U.S. zoologist. She was working as an occupational therapist when, on a trip to Africa in 1963, she met Louis Leakey (see Leakey family), who persuaded her to return to

study the mountain gorilla in its natural habitat. Owing to her patient and nonthreatening interactions, the gorillas of Rwanda’s Virunga Mountains became accustomed to her presence, and she was able to gather detailed knowledge of their habits, communication, and social structure. She obtained a Ph.D. in 1974 and taught at Cornell University while remain¬ ing involved with the Karisoke Research Center in Africa, which she had established in 1967. She recounted her observations in Gorillas in the Mist (1983; film, 1988). She actively protected the gorillas from poachers, who are suspected of her murder at Karisoke.

fossil Remnant, impression, or trace of an animal or plant of a past geo¬ logic age that has been preserved in the Earth’s CRUST. The data recorded in fossils, known as the fossil record, constitute the primary source of information about the history of life on the Earth. Only a small fraction of ancient organisms are preserved as fossils, and usually only organisms that have a solid skeleton or shell. A shell or bone that is buried quickly after deposition may retain organic tissue, though it becomes petrified (converted to a stony substance) over time. Unaltered hard parts, such as the shells of clams, are relatively common in sedimentary rocks. The soft parts of animals or plants are rarely preserved. The embedding of insects in amber and the preservation of mammoths in ice are rare but striking examples of the fossil preservation of soft tissues. Traces of organisms may also occur as tracks, trails, or even borings.

fossil fuel Any of a class of materials of biologic origin occurring within the Earth’s crust that can be used as a source of energy. Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. They all contain carbon and were formed as a result of geologic processes acting on the remains of (mostly) plants and animals that lived and died hundreds of millions of years ago. All fossil fuels can be burned to provide heat, which may be used directly, as in home heating, or to produce steam to drive a generator for the pro¬ duction of electricity. Fossil fuels supply nearly 90% of all the energy used by industrially developed nations.

Foster, Abigail Kelley orig. Abigail Kelley (b. Jan. 15, 1810, Pel¬ ham, Mass., U.S.—d. Jan. 14, 1887, Worcester, Mass.) U.S. abolitionist. She became active in a branch of the Female Anti-Slavery Society in the 1830s, and in 1838 she helped William Lloyd Garrison organize the New England Non-Resistance Society. Her long career as a political lecturer brought her national fame and notoriety, in part because she addressed mixed audiences (of both men and women). In 1845 she married Stephen S. Foster (1809-81), a prominent abolitionist who joined her lecture tour. In the 1850s she added temperance and women’s rights to her lecture top¬ ics.

Foster, Jodie orig. Alicia Christian Foster (b. Nov. 19, 1962, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) U.S. film actress and director. A professional actress by age three, she continued to play child roles in family films while earn¬ ing praise as a teenage prostitute in Taxi Driver (1976) and a seductive speakeasy queen in an all-child cast in Bugsy Malone (1976). As an adult she won acclaim for her nuanced performances in films such as The Accused (1988, Academy Award), The Silence of the Lambs (1991, Acad¬ emy Award), Nell (1994), and Panic Room (2002). She turned to direct¬ ing with Little Man Tate (1991) and Home for the Holidays (1995).

Foster, Stephen (Collins) (b. July 4, 1826, Lawrenceville, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 13, 1864, New York, N.Y.) U.S. songwriter. He began writ¬ ing songs as a child, influenced in part by black church services he attended with the family’s servant and by songs sung by black labourers. In 1842 he published “Open Thy Lattice, Love,” and in 1848 he sold “Oh! Susanna” for $100; it quickly became an international hit. He later entered into a contract with the publisher Firth, Pond & Co. He was commissioned to write songs for Edwin P. Christy’s minstrel show; his “Old Folks at Home” became one of the most popular songs of the century. In 1857, drinking heavily and in financial difficulties, he sold all rights to his future songs to his publishers for about $1,900. In 1860 he moved to New York; he died penniless at age 37, leaving about 200 songs, including “Camp- town Races,” “My Old Kentucky Home,” “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair,” and “Beautiful Dreamer,” and he is universally regarded as the greatest American songwriter of the 19th century.

Foster, William Z(ebulon) (b. Feb. 25, 1881, Taunton, Mass., U.S.—d. Sept. 1, 1961, Moscow, Russian S.F.S.R.) U.S. labour organizer and Communist Party leader. He joined the Industrial Workers of the World in 1909 and became nationally prominent as a leader of the Ameri¬ can Federation of Labor in the bloody steel strike of 1919. In 1921 the Soviet communists chose him as chairman of the U.S. Communist Party,

Trajan's Forum, Rome, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, early 2nd century ad; one of the semicircular col¬ onnaded exedrae

FOTOTECA UNIONE, ROME

Foucault ► Four Books I 697

and he ran as its presidential candidate in 1924, 1928, and 1932 on a plat¬ form that envisioned the ultimate demise of capitalism and the establish¬ ment of a workers’ republic. Ill health forced his resignation in 1932. Soviet dissatisfaction with his successor, Earl Browder, brought him back as chairman (1945-56), but he fell from favour and was made chairman emeritus in 1957.

Foucault \fu-'ko\, Jean (-Bernard-Leon) (b. Sept. 18, 1819, Paris, France—d. Feb. 11, 1868, Paris) French physicist. Though educated in medicine, his interests lay in physics. In 1850 he measured the speed of light with extreme accuracy. He invented the Foucault pendulum and used it to provide experimental proof that Earth rotates on its axis. He also discovered the existence of eddy currents (Foucault currents) in a copper disk moving in a strong magnetic field and invented (1859) a simple but extremely accurate method of testing telescope mirrors for surface defects.

Foucault \fu-'koV Michel (Paul) (b. Oct. 15, 1926, Poitiers, France—d. June 25, 1984, Paris) French structuralist philosopher and his¬ torian. A professor at the College de France from 1970, he examined the codes and concepts by which societies operate, especially the “principles of exclusion” (such as the distinctions between the sane and the insane) by which a society defines itself. He theorized that, by surveying social attitudes in relation to institutions such as asylums, hospitals, and prisons, one can examine the development and omnipresence of power. His books—including Madness and Civilization (1961), The Order of Things (1966), The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969), Discipline and Punish (1975), and History of Sexuality, 3 vol. (1976-84)—made him one of the most influential intellectuals of his time. He was an outspoken homo¬ sexual, and he died of AIDS. See also structuralism.

Foucault pendulum \fii-'ko\ Large pendulum that is free to swing in any direction. As it swings back and forth, the earth rotates beneath it, so its perpendicular plane of swing rotates in relation to the earth’s surface. Devised by J.-B.-L. Foucault in 1851, it provided the first laboratory demonstration that the earth spins on its axis. A Foucault pendulum always rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (a consequence of the Coriolis force). The rate of rotation depends on the latitude, becoming slower as the pendulum is placed closer to the equator; at the equator, a Foucault pendulum does not rotate.

Fouche \fu-'sha\, Joseph, duke d'Otrante (b. May 21, 1758?, Le Pellerin, near Nantes, France—d. Dec. 25, 1820, Trieste) French police organizer. In the French Revolution he was elected to the National Con¬ vention and voted for Louis XVI’s death. He was sent on missions to the provinces to ensure their loyalty, and in Lyon he ordered the massacre of rebels. He became minister of police in 1799; he supported Napoleon’s Coup of 18-19 Brumaire and subsequently organized the secret police. Though Napoleon made him duke d’Otrante in 1809, he had intrigued against Napoleon from 1807. He was dismissed after ordering a levy of the national guard (1809) but was brought back several times to under¬ take missions for Napoleon. He was minister of police during the Hun¬ dred Days and later president of a provisional government, but he was ultimately exiled as a regicide in 1816.

foundation Part of a structural system that supports and anchors the superstructure of a building and transmits its loads directly to the earth. To prevent damage from repeated freeze-thaw cycles, the bottom of the foundation must be below the frost line. The foundations of low-rise resi¬ dential buildings are nearly all supported on spread footings, wide bases (usually of concrete) that support walls or piers and distribute the load over a greater area. A concrete grade beam supported by isolated footings, piers, or piles may be placed at ground level, especially in a building with¬ out a basement, to support the exterior wall. Spread footings are also used—in greatly enlarged form—for high-rise buildings. Other systems for supporting heavy loads include piles, concrete caisson columns, and building directly on exposed rock. In yielding soil, a floating foundation— consisting of rigid, boxlike structures set at such a depth that the weight of the soil removed to place it equals the weight of the construction supported—may be used.

foundation Nongovernmental, nonprofit organization with assets pro¬ vided by donors and managed by its own officials and with income expended for socially useful puiposes. Foundations can be traced back to ancient Greece. The late 19th century first saw the establishment of large foundations with broad purposes and great freedom of action, usually originating in the fortunes of wealthy industrialists. Today foundations are

classified as community (having support from many donors and located in a specific community), corporation-sponsored, and independent. Notable examples include the Smithsonian Institution (1846), the Carnegie Corp. of New York (1911), the Rockefeller Foundation (1913), and the Ford Foundation (1936), one of the largest in the world. Nongovernmental organizations are known colloquially as “NGOs.”

foundationalism In epistemology, the view that some beliefs can jus¬ tifiably be held directly (e.g., on the basis of sense perception or rational intuition) and not by inference from other justified beliefs. Other types of beliefs (e.g., beliefs about material objects or about theoretical entities of science) are not regarded as basic or foundational in this way but are held to require inferential support. Foundationalists have typically recognized self-evident truths and reports of sense-data as basic, in the sense that they do not need support from other beliefs. Such beliefs thus provide the foundations on which the edifice of knowledge can properly be built. See also COHERENTISM.

founding Process of pouring molten metal into a mold. When the metal solidifies, the result is a casting, a metal object conforming to that shape. Multitudinous metal objects are molded at some point during their manu¬ facture. Modern foundries capable of large-scale production are charac¬ terized by a high degree of mechanization, automation, and robotics; microprocessors accurately control the automated systems. Advances in chemical binders have resulted in stronger molds and cores and in more accurate castings. Accuracy and purity are increased in vacuum condi¬ tions, and further advances are expected from zero-gravity casting in space.

fountain Artificially produced jet of water, and the structure from which it rises. Fountains have been an important feature of landscape design since ancient times. Displaced for a time by the medieval well, the foun¬ tain reemerged in the late Middle Ages. It reached its peak in the Renais¬ sance and Baroque eras, with designs in which sculpture became prominent (e.g., Rome’s Trevi Fountain). Supplying water through con¬ duits to multiple fountains, as at the Palace of Versailles, was an impor¬ tant feat. In Muslim countries, fountains for drinking and for ablutions are of great importance. A common type is the simple spout and basin enclosed in a graceful niche; more ambitious designs take the form of a richly decorated pavilion.

Fouquet \fu-'ke\, Jean (b. c. 1420, Tours, Fr.—d. c. 1481, Tours) French painter. Little is known about his early life or training, but a trip to Rome in the 1440s exposed him to Italian Renaissance art; upon his return to Tours, Fouquet created a new style, combining the experiments of Italian painting with the exquisite precision of characterization and detail of Flemish art. His most famous works were produced for Charles VII’s secretary, Etienne Chevalier: a large Book of Hours with some 60 full-page miniatures and a diptych from Notre-Dame at Melun (c. 1450), with Chevalier’s portrait on one panel and a Madonna and Child on the other. The altarpiece of the Pieta in the church at Nouans is his only monumental painting. In 1475 he became royal painter to Louis XI. He broadened the range of miniature painting to include vast panoramas of architecture and landscape and made brilliant use of aerial perspective and colour tonality. He was the preeminent French painter of the 15th century.

Fouquet \fu-'ke\, Nicolas (b. 1615, Paris, France—d. March 23, 1680, Pignerol) French finance minister (1653-61) in the early years of the reign of Louis XIV. He was a wealthy supporter of the powerful Cardinal Maz- arin and of the royal government during the turmoil of the Fronde (1648- 53), when he lent large sums to the treasury. In 1653 he was appointed superintendent of finance. After Mazarin’s death (1661) Jean-Baptiste Col¬ bert sought to succeed Fouquet by destroying his reputation with the king. Fouquet was arrested for embezzlement, while Colbert suppressed papers that would have absolved him. Though public opinion was in his favour, he was sentenced in 1664 to imprisonment in the fortress of Pignerol, where he died.

Four Books Chinese Sishu Ancient Confucian texts used as the basis of study for civil service examinations (see Chinese examination system) in China (1313-1905). They served as an introduction to Confucianism and were traditionally studied before the more difficult Five Classics. The pub¬ lication of the four texts as a unit in 1190 with commentaries by Zhu Xi helped revitalize Confucianism in China. The texts are Daxue, Zhong- yong, Lunyu (the Analects, which reputedly contains direct quotations from Confucius and is deemed the most reliable source of his teachings), and Mencius.

698 i four-colour map problem ► Fourth Republic

four-colour map problem In topology, a long-standing conjecture asserting that no more than four colours are required to shade in any map such that each adjacent region is coloured differently. First posed in 1852 by Francis Guthrie, a British math student, it was solved by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken using a computer-assisted proof in 1976.

Four Freedoms Essential social and political objectives described by Pres. Franklin Roosevelt in his State of the Union message in January 1941: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear of physical aggression. He called for the last freedom to be achieved through a “worldwide reduction in armaments.” In August 1941 he and Winston Churchill included the four freedoms in the Atlantic Char¬ ter.

Four Horsemen Name given by the sportswriter Grantland Rice to the backfield of the University of Notre Dame’s undefeated football team of 1924: quarterback Harry Stuhldreher, halfbacks Don Miller and Jim Crowley, and fullback Elmer Lay den. They and their teammates, coached by Knute Rockne, lost only two of 30 games in the years 1922-24.

Four Hundred, Council of the (411 bc) Oligarchical council that briefly took power in Athens during the Peloponnesian War in a coup inspired by Antiphon and Alcibiades. An extremely antidemocratic coun¬ cil, it was soon replaced, at the insistence of the Athenian fleet, by a more moderate oligarchy, the Five Thousand. The new council lasted only 10 months, but full democracy was restored in 410 and a commission set up to prevent a recurrence. See also Theramenes.

Four Noble Truths Statement of the basic doctrines of Buddhism. They were formulated by the Buddha Gautama in his first sermon. The truths are (1) existence is suffering; (2) desire, or thirst, is its cause; (3) the cessa¬ tion of suffering is possible; and (4) the way to accomplish this is to fol¬ low the Eightfold Path. Though differently interpreted, these four truths are recognized by virtually all Buddhist schools.

Fourdrinier \ 1 for-dr3-'nir\ machine Machine for producing paper, paperboard, and other fibreboards, consisting of a moving endless belt of wire or plastic screen that receives a mixture of pulp and water and allows excess water to drain off, forming a continuous sheet for further drying by suction, pressure, and heat. Calendering smooths the paper or board and imparts gloss or other desired finish to the surface. The first machine to produce a continuous web (roll), the Fourdrinier machine was patented in France in 1799 by Louis Robert and later improved in England by Henry (1766-1854) and Sealy (died 1847) Fourdrinier. With further improvements over the years, it is still in use today.

Fourier \f\ir-ya.,\English\ , fur-e-,a\, (Francois-Marie-) Charles (b.

April 7, 1772, Besangon, France—d.

Oct. 10, 1837, Paris) French social theorist. He advocated a reconstruc¬ tion of society based on communal associations of producers known as phalanges (phalanxes). His system became known as Fourierism. He felt that phalanges would distribute wealth more equitably than would capitalism and that they would con¬ tribute both to a cooperative lifestyle and to individual self-fulfillment.

After inheriting his mother’s estate in 1812 , he devoted himself to writ¬ ing and refining his theories. Coop¬ erative settlements based on Fourierism were started in France and the U.S., including Brook Farm.

Fourier \'fur-e-,a\ / (Jean- Baptiste-) Joseph, Baron (b.

March 21, 1768, Auxerre,

France—d. May 16, 1830, Paris)

French mathematician and Egyptol¬ ogist. While an engineer on Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition, he con¬ ducted (1798-1801) anthropological investigations and wrote the preface to the monumental Description de I’Egypte, whose publication he over¬ saw (1809-28). In 1808 he was created a baron by Napoleon. In math¬ ematics he is primarily known for his work in heat conduction (1807-22), for his use of the Fourier series to solve differential equations, and for the

related concept of the Fourier trans¬ form. As a scientist and humanist, he epitomized the spirit of French intel- lectualism of the Revolutionary era.

Fourier series In mathematics, an infinite series used to solve special types of differential equations. It con¬ sists of an infinite sum of sines and cosines, and because it is periodic (i.e., its values repeat over fixed intervals), it is a useful tool in ana¬ lyzing periodic functions. Though investigated by Leonhard Euler, among others, the idea was named for Joseph Fourier, who fully explored its consequences, including impor¬ tant applications in engineering, par¬ ticularly in heat conduction.

Fourier transform In math¬ ematical analysis, an integral transform useful in solving certain types of partial differential equations. A function’s Fourier transform is derived by integrating the product of the function and a kernel function (an expo¬ nential function raised to a negative complex power) over the interval from —oo to +oo. The Fourier transform of a function g is given by

t kfy***

Such transforms, discovered by Joseph Fourier, are particularly useful in studying problems concerning electrical potential.

Fourneyron \fur-ne-'ro n \, BenoTt (b. Oct. 31, 1802, Saint-Etienne, France—d. July 31, 1867, Paris) French inventor of the water turbine. He first built a small, 6-horsepower unit in which water was directed outward from a central source onto blades or vanes set at angles in a rotor, and he eventually produced a turbine capable of 2,300 revolutions per minute, 80% efficiency, and 60 horsepower, with a wheel 1 ft (30 cm) in diameter weighing 40 lbs (18 kg). Besides its more obvious advantages over the waterwheel, Fourneyron’s turbine could be installed horizontally with a vertical shaft. Immediately successful, it powered industry in continental Europe and the U.S., notably the New England textile industry. In 1895 Fourneyron turbines were installed on the U.S. side of Niagara Falls to generate electric power.

four-o'clock Ornamental perennial plant (Mirabilis jalapa\ family Nyctaginaceae), also called marvel-of-Peru or beauty-of-the-night, native to the tropical New World. It is a quick-growing species up to 3 ft (1 m) tall, with oval leaves on short leafstalks. The stems are swollen at the joints. The plant is called four-o’clock because its flowers, which vary from white and yellow to shades of pink and red, sometimes streaked and mottled, open in late afternoon (and close by morning).

Fourteen Points Outline of proposals by Pres. Woodrow Wilson for a post-World War I peace settlement, given in an address in January 1918. The emphasis on “open covenants of peace, openly arrived at” was pro¬ posed to change the usual method of secret diplomacy practiced in Europe. Other points outlined territorial adjustments following the war. The last point called for “a general association of nations,” which pre¬ saged the League of Nations.

fourth-generation language (4GL) Fourth-generation computer programming language. 4GLs are closer to human language than other high-level languages and are accessible to people without formal training as programmers. They allow multiple common operations to be performed with a single programmer-entered command. They are intended to be easier for users than machine languages (first-generation), assembly lan¬ guages (second-generation), and older high-level languages (third- generation).

Fourth of July See Independence Day

Fourth Republic Government of the French Republic from 1946 to 1958. The postwar provisional president Charles de Gaulle resigned in 1946, expecting that public support would bring him back to power with a mandate to impose his constitutional ideas. Instead, the constituent assembly chose the Socialist Felix Gouin to replace him. The assembly

Charles Fourier, engraving by Samuel Sartain after a painting by Jean- Fran^ois Gigoux

CULVER PICTURES

Joseph Fourier, lithograph by Jules Boilly, 1823; in the Academy of Sci¬ ences, Paris.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

Fowler ► foxhound I 699

submitted two draft constitutions to a popular vote in 1946, and the revi¬ sion was narrowly approved. The structure of the Fourth Republic was remarkably like that of the Third Republic. The lower house of parliament, renamed the National Assembly, was the locus of power. Shaky coalition cabinets succeeded one another, and the lack of a clear-cut majority ham¬ pered coherent action. Political leaders included Georges Bidault, Pierre Mendes-France, Rene Pleven, and Robert Schuman.

Fowler, H(enry) W(atson) (b. March 10, 1858, Tonbridge, Kent, Eng.—d. Dec. 26, 1933, Hinton St. George, Somerset) English lexicog¬ rapher and philologist. With his brother, Francis George Fowler (d. 1918), he wrote The King’s English (1906) and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1911). H.W. Fowler’s major work, planned with his brother, was A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926), an alpha¬ betical listing of points of grammar, syntax, style, pronunciation, and punctuation, whose depth, style, and humour have made it a classic.

Fowler, William A(lfred) (b. Aug. 9, 1911, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—d. March 14, 1995, Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. nuclear astrophysicist. He received his Ph.D. from Caltech and became a professor there in 1939. His theory of element generation (nucleosynthesis) suggests that, as stars evolve, chemical elements are synthesized progressively (light to heavy) by means of nuclear fusion that also produces light and heat and that the heaviest elements are synthesized in supernovas. For his theory he shared a 1983 Nobel Prize with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. He is also known for his work in radio astronomy with Fred Hoyle.

Fowles, John (Robert) (b. March 31, 1926, Leigh-on-Sea, Essex, Eng.—d. Nov. 5, 2005, Lyme Regis, Dorset) British novelist. His richly allusive and descriptive works combine psychological probings—chiefly of sex and love—with an interest in the social and philosophical context of human behaviour. His first novel. The Collector (1963; film, 1965), about a shy man who kidnaps a girl in a hapless search for love, was fol¬ lowed by The Magus (1965; film, 1968) and The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969; film, 1981), his most famous work, set in Victorian England. Later works include the novella collection The Ebony Tower (1974; film made for television, 1984), Daniel Martin (1977), and A Mag¬ got (1985).

fox Any of various canines resembling small to medium-sized, bushy- tailed dogs. Foxes have long fur, pointed ears, relatively short legs, and a naiTOw snout. They have often been hunted for sport or fur. In a more restricted sense, the name refers to about 10 species of true foxes (genus Vulpes), especially both the Old and New World red foxes. See also Arc¬ tic FOX, BAT-EARED FOX, FENNEC, GRAY FOX.

Fox North American Indian people living mainly in Oklahoma but also in Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa, U.S. They are distinct from but united with the Sauk (Sac) as the Sac and Fox Nation. Their name for them¬ selves is Mesquakie (or Meshkwahkihaki, meaning “People of the Red Earth”), and their language is of the Algonquian family. They are believed to have originated from the Great Lakes region. Both the Sauk and the Fox were living in Wisconsin at the time of first European contact. Their permanent villages—near fields in which women cultivated corn, beans, and squash—were occupied in summer; in winter they hunted bison on the prairies. A chief and council administered tribal affairs. Families were grouped into clans. Religious life centred on the Grand Medicine Soci¬ ety, whose members enlisted supernatural aid to heal the sick and ensure success in warfare. In the 18th century the Fox joined with the Sauk to war against the French and English. Though unconquered, they retreated south to Illinois and later west to Iowa. In 1832 Black Hawk led a group of Fox and Sauk in an unsuccessful attempt to return to their Illinois lands. In the 2000 U.S. census some 4,200 people claimed Sac and Fox descent.

Fox, Charles James (b. Jan. 24, 1749, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 13, 1806, Chiswick, Devon) British politician. He entered Parliament in 1768 and became leader of the Whigs in the House of Commons, where he used his brilliant oratorical skills to strongly oppose Britain’s policy toward the American colonies. Almost always in the political opposition, he conducted a vendetta against George III and was later an enemy of Wil¬ liam Pin. He served as Britain’s first foreign secretary (1782, 1783, 1806). He achieved two important reforms by steering through Parliament a resolution pledging it to end the slave trade and by enacting the 1792 Libel Act, which restored to juries their right to decide what constituted libel and whether or not a defendant was guilty of it. He is remembered as a great champion of liberty.

Fox, George (b. July 1624, Drayton-in-the-Clay, Leicestershire, Eng.—d. Jan. 13, 1691, London) English preacher and founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers. The son of a weaver, he left home at age 18 in search of religious experience. Probably beginning as a Puritan, he reacted even more strongly than the Puritans against the tradition of the Church of England and came to regard personal experience as the true source of authority, placing God-given “inward light,” or inspiration, above creeds and scripture. He traveled the countryside on foot, preach¬ ing to small groups, and he and other preachers established congregations. The Society of Friends arose in the 1650s. The Quakers’ denunciation of ministers and public officials and their refusal to pay tithes or take oaths led to persecution, and Fox was imprisoned eight times between 1649 and 1673. He made missionary trips to Ireland, the Caribbean islands. North America, and northern Europe. His Journal gives an account of his life and of the rise of Quakerism.

Fox, Vicente Quesada (b. July 2, 1942, Mexico City, Mex.) Presi¬ dent of Mexico (2000- ) whose election ended 71 years of uninterrupted rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). After earning a degree in business administration from the Ibero-American University in Mexico City, Fox took classes at Harvard Business School. He later worked for the Coca-Cola Company, serving as its chief executive in Mexico (1975— 79). In 1987 he joined the National Action Party (PAN) and the follow¬ ing year was elected to the national Chamber of Deputies. Elected governor of Guanajuato in 1995, he left the post in 1998 to focus on his national campaign. As president he sought to improve relations with the United States and calm civil unrest in such areas as Chiapas and Tabasco.

Fox Broadcasting Co. U.S. television broadcasting company. Founded in 1986 by Rupert Murdoch, it began with 79 affiliated stations that reached 80% of U.S. homes. The network gradually expanded its broadcast hours to seven nights a week and gained more affiliates to make it available across the U.S. Concentrating on shows that appealed to afflu¬ ent young viewers, it added programming divisions for children, sports, and news in the 1990s.

fox terrier Well-known breed of dog developed in England to drive foxes from their dens. The wire- haired variety was developed from a rough-coated black-and-tan terrier; the smooth-haired variety was devel¬ oped from the beagle, greyhound, bull terrier, and a smooth-coated black- and-tan terrier. Both are sturdy, with a tapered muzzle and folded,

V-shaped ears. They stand about 15 in. (38 cm) high and weigh 15-19 lb (7-8.5 kg). Predominantly white with black or black-and-tan mark¬ ings, fox terriers are noted for their bold, energetic nature.

foxglove Any of 20-30 species of herbaceous plants of the genus Digi¬ talis, in the snapdragon family, espe¬ cially D. purpurea, the common, or purple, foxglove. Native to Europe, the Mediterranean region, and the Canary Islands, foxgloves typically produce ovate to oblong leaves toward the lower part of the stem, which is capped by a tall, one-sided cluster of pendulous, bell-shaped, purple, yellow, or white flowers, often marked with spots within. D. purpurea is cultivated as the source of the heart-stimulating drug digitalis.

foxhound Either of two breeds of dogs traditionally kept in packs for fox hunting. The English foxhound stands 21-25 in. (53-64 cm) high and weighs 60-70 lbs (27-32 kg). It has a short coat, which is usually a com¬ bination of black, tan, and white. The American foxhound resembles the English breed in appearance and size but is more lightly built. It is the oldest breed of sporting dog in the U.S., developed from English fox-

Wirehaired fox terrier

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

Foxglove (Digitalis)

DEREK FELL

700 i foxhunting ► Fragonard

hounds imported beginning in 1650. Both breeds have been bred for strength, speed, and versatility; they are rarely kept as house pets.

foxhunting Chase of a fox by horsemen with a pack of hounds. In England, home of the sport, it dates from at least the 15th century, when it probably developed out of stag and hare hunting. Modern foxhunting became popular among the upper classes in the 19th century. A hunt is led by the master; the dogs (usually 15-20 matched pairs) are controlled by the huntsman and two or three assistants. The hunt may take place on any grounds (woodlands, heath, or fields) where a fox is suspected to be. The riders, outfitted in distinctive scarlet coats, meet at a host’s house, and the hounds are sent off to search out the fox; when it is found, the hunt begins. The fox is chased until it either escapes or is cornered and killed. Although foxhunting reached its peak in popularity before World War I, it continued to be practiced afterward, most notably in the United Kingdom. However, growing opposition to the sport, largely based on charges of animal cruelty and elitism, led to its ban in Scotland (2002) and in England and Wales (2005).

Foxx, Jimmie orig. James Emory Foxx (b. Oct. 22, 1907, Sudlersville, Md., U.S.—d. July 21,

1967, Miami, Fla.) U.S. baseball player. Foxx batted right-handed and played mostly at first base, princi¬ pally with the Philadelphia Athletics (1925—35) and the Boston Red Sox (1936-42). In two of his 20 seasons he hit over 50 home runs. His career home runs totaled 534 when he retired in 1945, making him the sec¬ ond man in major-league history (after Babe Ruth) to hit 500 home runs.

Foyt, A(nthony) J(oseph), Jr.

(b. Jan. 16, 1935, Houston, Texas,

U.S.) U.S. automobile racing driver.

He became the first four-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 (1961, 1964,

1967, 1977) and is the only driver to have won the Indy 500, the Daytona 500, and the Le Mans Grand Prix. He was national champion stock-car driver in 1968, 1978, and 1979, and he also amassed numerous wins in sports- and midget-car racing.

Fracastoro Vfra-ka-'sto-roV, Girolamo Latin Hieronymus Fra- castorius (b. c. 1478, Verona, Republic of Venice—d. Aug. 8, 1553, Caffi, near Verona) Italian physician, poet, astronomer, and geologist. He is best known for Syphilis, or the French Disease (1530), an account in rhyme of the disease he named. His intense study of epidemic diseases led to his On Contagion and Contagious Diseases (1546). The first sci¬ entific statement of the true nature of contagion, infection, disease germs, and modes of disease transmission, it stated that each disease is caused by a different type of rapidly multiplying minute body, transmitted by direct contact, by carriers such as soiled clothing or through the air. Widely praised in his time, Fracastoro’s theory, soon obscured by the mystical doctrines of Paracelsus, fell into general disrepute until Louis Pas¬ teur and Robert Koch proved it 300 years later.

fractal geometry In mathematics, the study of complex shapes with the property of self-similarity, known as fractals. Rather like holograms that store the entire image in each part of the image, any part of a fractal can be repeatedly magnified, with each magnification resembling all or part of the original fractal. This phenomenon can be seen in objects like snowflakes and tree bark. The term fractal was coined by Benoit B. Man¬ delbrot in 1975. This new system of geometry has had a significant impact on such diverse fields as physical chemistry, physiology, and fluid mechanics; fractals can describe irregularly shaped objects or spatially nonuniform phenomena that cannot be described by Euclidean geometry. Fractal simulations have been used to plot the distributions of galactic clusters and to generate lifelike images of complicated, irregular natural objects, including rugged terrains and foliage used in films. See also chaos THEORY.

fraction In arithmetic, a number expressed as a quotient, in which a numerator is divided by a denominator. In a simple fraction, both are inte¬ gers. A complex fraction has a fraction in the numerator or denominator. In a proper fraction, the numerator is less than the denominator. If the numerator is greater, it is called an improper fraction and can also be written as a mixed number—a whole-number quotient with a proper- fraction remainder. Any fraction can be written in decimal form by car¬ rying out the division of the numerator by the denominator. The result may end at some point, or one or more digits may repeat without end.

fracture In mineralogy, the appearance of a surface broken in directions other than along cleavage planes. There are several kinds of fractures: conchoidal (curved concavities resembling shells, as in glass); even (rough, approximately plane surfaces); uneven (rough and completely irregular surfaces, the commonest type); hackly (sharp edges and jagged points and depressions); and splintery (partially separated splinters or fibres).

fracture In engineering, rupture of a material too weak to sustain the forces on it. A fracture of the workpiece during forming can result from flaws in the metal; these often consist of nonmetallic inclusions such as oxides or sulfides trapped in the metal during refining. Laps are another type of flaw, in which part of a metal piece is inadvertently folded over on itself but the two sides of the fold are not completely welded together. Structural and machine parts subject to vibrations and other cyclic load¬ ing must be designed to avoid fatigue fracture. See also ductility, metal¬ lurgy, strength of materials, testing machine.

fracture Break in a bone, caused by stress. It causes pain, tenderness, and inability to use the part with the fracture. The site appears deformed, swollen, and discoloured, and the bone moves in abnormal ways. It must be protected from weight bearing and movement between the broken ends while it heals, producing puttylike new tissue that hardens to join the bro¬ ken pieces together. Complications include failure to heal, healing in the wrong position, and loss of function despite good healing. Fractures in joints present a particularly serious problem, often requiring surgery. See also OSTEOPOROSIS.

fracture zone, submarine See submarine fracture zone

Fraenkel-Conrat N.freq-kol-'kon-raA, Heinz L(udwig) (b. July 29, 1910, Breslau, Ger.—d. April 10, 1999, Oakland, Calif., U.S.) German- born U.S. biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Edin¬ burgh and moved to the U.S. in 1936, eventually joining the faculty at UC-Berkeley. Studying the tobacco mosaic virus, he broke it down into its noninfectious protein and nearly noninfectious nucleic acid compo¬ nents and, by recombining them, successfully reconstituted the fully infec¬ tive virus, which led to the discovery that the nucleic acid portion is responsible for its infectivity and, in the absence of the viral protein, is broken down by RNA-splitting enzymes (nucleases).

Fragonard \fra-go-'nar\, Jean-Honore (b. April 5, 1732, Grasse, Fr.—d. Aug. 22, 1806, Paris) French painter. He studied with Francois Boucher in Paris c. 1749. He subse¬ quently won a Prix de Rome, and while in Italy (1756-61) he traveled extensively and executed many sketches of the countryside, espe¬ cially the gardens at the Villa d’Este at Tivoli, and developed a great admiration for the work of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. In 1765 his large his¬ torical painting Coresus Sacrifices Himself to Save Callirhoe was pur¬ chased for Louis XV and won Frago¬ nard election to the French Royal Academy. He soon abandoned this style to concentrate on landscapes in the manner of Jacob van Ruisdael, portraits, and the decorative, erotic outdoor party scenes for which he became famous (e.g.. The Swing, c.

1766). The gentle hedonism of such party scenes epitomized the Rococo style. Although the greater part of his

Foxx, 1940

UPI-EB INC.

"The Swing," detail, oil on canvas by Jean-Honore Fragonard, c. 1766; in the Wallace Collection, London

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE WALLACE COLLECTION, LONDON

Frame ► France I 701

active life was passed during the Neoclassical period, he continued to paint in a Rococo idiom until shortly before the French Revolution, when he lost his patrons and livelihood.

Frame (Clutha), Janet (Paterson) (b. Aug. 28, 1924, Dunedin, N.Z.—d. Jan. 29, 2004, Dunedin) New Zealand novelist, short-story writer, and poet. After an impoverished childhood, she trained as a teacher. Her first book was the story collection The Lagoon (1951). Several times committed to mental institutions, she narrowly escaped undergoing a fron¬ tal lobotomy. Her novel Owls Do Cry (1957) incorporated poetry and prose in its investigation of the border between sanity and madness. Her many other novels, several of which draw on Maori legends, include Scented Gardens for the Blind (1963) and The Carpathians (1988). One of her three volumes of memoirs, An Angel at My Table (1984), was filmed by Jane Campion.

frame of reference See reference frame

framed structure or frame structure Structure supported mainly by a skeleton, or frame, of wood, steel, or reinforced concrete rather than by load-bearing walls. Rigid frames have fixed joints that enable the frames to resist lateral forces; other frames require diagonal bracing or shear walls and diaphragms for lateral stability. Heavy timber framing was the most common type of construction in East Asia and northern Europe from prehistoric times to the mid-19th century. It was supplanted by the balloon frame and the platform frame (see ught-frame construction). Steel’s strength, when used in steel framing, made possible buildings with longer spans. Concrete frames impart greater rigidity and continuity; vari¬ ous advancements, such as the introduction of the shear wall and slip¬ forming, have made concrete a serious competitor with steel in high-rise structures.

framing, timber See timber framing

France officially French Republic Country, northwestern Europe. It includes the island of Corsica. Area: 210,026 sq mi (543,965 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 60,733,000. Capital: Paris. The people are mainly

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