Britannica Concise 2005

Yoshitsune See Minamoto Yoshitsune

Youghiogheny \,ya-k3-'ga-ne\ River River in northeastern West Vir¬ ginia, northwestern Maryland, and southwestern Pennsylvania, U.S. It rises in West Virginia, near the western edge of Maryland, and flows north through northwestern Maryland into Pennsylvania to enter the Mononga- hela River at McKeesport after a course of 135 mi (217 km). It is the only river in western Maryland that does not flow south into the Potomac River.

You mans Vyti-monzV Vincent (Millie) (b. Sept. 27,1898, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 5, 1946, Denver, Colo.) U.S. songwriter. He started writing songs while in the navy during World War I and later worked as a song plugger in Tin Pan Alley. He collaborated with lyricists such as Ira

Gershwin and Oscar Hammerstein on the Broadway musicals Wildflower (1923), No, No, Nanette (1925), Hit the Deck (1927), Great Day (1928), and the first Fred Astaire-Ginger Rogers vehicle. Flying Down to Rio (1933). His standards include “Tea for Two,” “More Than You Know,” “Time on My Hands,” and “Carioca.”

Young, Andrew in full Andrew Jackson Young, Jr. (b. March 12, 1932, New Orleans, La., U.S.) U.S. politician. He earned a divinity degree in 1955 and became a pastor at several African American churches in the South. Active in the civil rights movement, he worked with Martin Luther King, Jr., and Ralph Abernathy in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1961-70). He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1972-77). An early supporter of Jimmy Carter, he was appointed U.S. ambassador to the UN (1977-79), the first African American to hold the post. He served as mayor of Atlanta (1982-90).

Young, Brigham (b. June 1, 1801, Whitingham, Vt., U.S.—d. Aug. 29, 1877, Salt Lake City, Utah) U.S. religious leader, second president of the Mormon church. He settled in Mendon, N.Y., in 1829 and was bap¬ tized into Joseph Smith’s Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1832. In 1834 he joined the Mor¬ mons in Missouri, and when they were driven out in 1838, he orga¬ nized their move to Nauvoo, Ill. He established a Mormon mission in England in 1839. After Smith’s mur¬ der in 1844, Young took over the church. He led the persecuted Mor¬ mons from Illinois to Utah (1846—

48), choosing the site of Salt Lake City for the new Mormon headquar¬ ters. Elected president of the Mor¬ mons in 1847, he became governor of the provisional state of Deseret in 1849 and of the territory of Utah in 1850. His dictatorial autonomy and legalization of polygamy led Pres. James Buchanan to replace him as governor in 1857 and send the army to assert federal supremacy in the so-called Utah War, but Young remained head of the Mormon church until his death. He took more than 20 wives and fathered 47 children.

Young, Coleman (b. May 24, 1918, Tuscaloosa, Ala., U.S.—d. Nov. 29, 1997, Detroit, Mich.) U.S. politician. He moved with his family to Detroit in 1923. At Ford Motor Co. he became involved in union activi¬ ties and civil rights activism. In World War II, he served with the Tuske- gee Airmen. He later cofounded the National Negro Labor Council, which he disbanded in the 1950s to avoid turning over its membership list dur¬ ing an investigation by the House Un-American Activities Committee. He was elected to the Michigan senate in 1964, and in 1968 he became the Demo¬ cratic National Committee’s first African American member. As mayor of Detroit (1973-93), he focused on revitalizing the crime-ridden city by attracting new businesses and reinforcing the police department. He retired after an unprecedented five terms.

Young, Cy orig. Denton True Young (b. March 29, 1867, Gilmore, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 4, 1955, Newcomerstown, Ohio) U.S. baseball pitcher. Young, 6 ft 2 in. (1.88 m) tall, was a powerful right-handed thrower. His dominating fastball earned him the nickname “Cy,” short for “cyclone.” He began his major league career in 1890 with the Cleveland Indians (National League); after his Cleveland years (1890-98), he pitched for the St. Louis Cardinals (1899-1900), the Boston Red Sox (1901-08), the Cleveland Indians again (American League, 1909-11), and the Boston Braves (1911). In each of 16 seasons he won more than 20 games; in five he won more than 30. Though many early records are in dispute, he won more major league games (509 or 511) than any other pitcher in history. Among his other records are games started (816 or 818), completed starts (750 or 751), and innings pitched (7,356 or 7,377). In 1904 he pitched the first perfect game (no player reaching first base). The annual Cy Young Award, instituted in 1956, originally honoured the best major league pitcher; since 1967 it has been given to the best pitcher in each league.

Young, Lester (Willis) (b. Aug. 27, 1909, Woodville, Miss., U.S.—d. March 15, 1959, New York, N.Y.) U.S. tenor saxophonist. Young joined

, Whitingham, Vt., U.S.—d. Aug.

Brigham Young

COURTESY OF UTAH STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY

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Young ► youth hostel I 2099

Count Basie’s band in 1936 and was recognized as a major new stylist on the instrument. His small-group recordings from the late 1930s with Basie and vocalist Billie Holiday are classics. He was nicknamed Prez by Holiday (short for “President of the saxophone”). Young’s subtle harmo¬ nies and unconventional rhythmic independence influenced both bebop and cool-jazz musicians; his gentle tone and ethereal lyricism inspired an entire school of jazz saxophone playing.

Young, Neil (b. Nov. 12, 1945,

Toronto, Ont., Can.) Canadian rock singer and songwriter. He began his career as a folksinger in Winnipeg and later moved to Los Angeles, Calif., U.S., where he formed the rock group Buffalo Springfield with Stephen Stills. In 1968 he released a solo album; in 1969 he joined Stills, David Crosby, and Graham Nash, to form Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young. His high-pitched, nasal vocals were instantly recognizable in any band. With a new band, Crazy Horse, he had great success with albums such as Harvest (1972) and Comes a Time (1978). In the 1980s he experimented with rockabilly and electronic music.

Young, Thomas (b. June 13, 1773, Milverton, Somerset, Eng.—d. May 10, 1829, London) English physicist. Trained as a physician, he practiced medicine at St. George’s Hospital (from 1811 until his death) but spent much of his time on scientific research. He was the first to describe and measure astigmatism (1800-01) and the first to explain colour sensation in terms of retinal structures corresponding to red, green, and violet (1801). He established the principle of interference of light, thus resurrecting the century-old wave theory of light (1801). He explained capillarity independently of Pierre-Simon Laplace. Investigating elasticity, he proposed Young’s modulus, a numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a solid undergoing tension or compression. His other work included measuring the size of molecules and surface tension in liq¬ uids. With J.-F. Champollion, he helped decipher the inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone (1813-14).

Young Algerians Algerian nationalist group. Formed shortly before World War I (1914-18), they were a loosely organized group of French- educated workers in the modernized French sector. The Young Algerians were “assimilationists,” willing to consider permanent union with France on the condition that native Algerians be given the full rights of French citizens. In the years following the war, such gradualist reformers found themselves opposed by radical nationalists demanding complete indepen¬ dence. See also Ferhat Abbas; Association of Algerian Reformist ‘Ulama’; National Liberation Front.

Young America movement U.S. political concept popular in the 1840s. Inspired by European youth movements of the 1830s (see Young Italy), the U.S. group was formed as a political organization in 1845 by Edwin de Leon and George H. Evans. It advocated free trade, expansion southward into the territories, and support for republican movements abroad. It became a faction in the Democratic Party in the 1850s. Sen. Stephen A. Dougas promoted its nationalistic program in an unsuccessful effort to compromise sectional differences.

Young Italy Italian Giovine Italia Movement founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831 to work for a united, republican Italian nation. In contrast to earlier independence movements of the Carbonari, Young Italy was to be based on support from the Italian people, who would be educated in their political role. To propagate his ideas, Mazzini published the journal Giovine Italia (1832-34). The movement spread in northern Italy and by 1833 included more than 50,000 members. It staged revolts in the 1830s and ’40s, but it failed to win popular support for insurrection. In 1848 Mazzini replaced Young Italy with the Italian National Committee. After 1850 his influence declined as leadership of the movement for Italian uni¬ fication passed to Camillo Benso, count di Cavour. See also Risorgimento.

Young Men's Christian Association See YMCA

Young Plan (1929) Renegotiation of Germany’s World War I repara¬ tions payments by a committee chaired by the U.S. lawyer Owen D. Young

(1874-1962) in Paris. The Young Plan, a revision of the Dawes Pan, reduced the amount due from Germany to $26.3 billion, to be paid over 59 years, and ended foreign controls on German economic life. It went into effect in 1930, but the world depression affected Germany’s ability to pay. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, he repudiated the obli¬ gations of the Treaty of Versailles, including reparations.

Young Tunisians Political party formed in 1907 by French-educated Tunisian intellectuals to oppose French rule. They demanded complete control of the country’s government and administration and full citizen¬ ship rights for both Tunisians and Frenchmen. They protested the Italian invasion of Libya (1911) and rioted against French actions at home. The French exiled its leaders, driving the party underground until 1920, when it reemerged and reorganized itself as the Destour Party, which remained active until 1957. See also Habib Bourguiba.

Young Turks Turkish Jonturkler Coalition of young dissidents who ended the sultanate of the Ottoman Empire. Consisting of college students and dissident soldiers, the group succeeded in 1908 in forcing AbdOlha- mid II to reinstitute the 1876 constitution and recall the legislature. They deposed him the following year, reorganized the government, and began modernizing and industrializing Turkish society. They joined the Central Powers during World War I (1914-18). Facing defeat, they resigned a month before the war ended. See also Mustafa Kemal Ataturk; Enver Pasha; Midhat Pasha.

Younghusband, Sir Francis Edward (b. May 31, 1863, Murree, India—d. July 31, 1942, Lytchett Minster, Dorset, England) British army officer and explorer. He forced the conclusion of the Anglo-Tibetan Treaty (1904) that gained Britain long-sought trade concessions. His two initial attempts to negotiate trade and frontier issues with Tibet failed despite British military action; he then marched to Lhasa with British troops and forced the conclusion of a trade treaty, though the Daai Lama, Tibet’s leader, had fled. See also amban.

Youngstown City (pop., 2000: 82,026), northeastern Ohio, U.S. Located on the Mahoning River, near the Pennsylvania border, it was founded in 1797. Ohio’s first furnace to produce iron was built nearby in 1805. In 1855 the Sault Sainte Marie locks were opened, making the rich iron ores from the upper Great Lakes region available; railroad lines were later built to transport ores and coal to Youngstown. By 1920 it had become one of the largest steel-producing centres in the U.S. Its products now include aluminum, rubber, and paper products. Youngstown State University was established in 1908.

Yourcenar \yur-s9-'nar. Marguerite orig. Marguerite de Crayencour (b. June 8, 1903,

Brussels, Belg.—d. Dec. 17, 1987,

Northeast Harbor, Maine, U.S.)

Belgian-born French-U.S. novelist, essayist, and short-story writer. Inde¬ pendently wealthy after her father’s death, she led a nomadic life until World War II, when she settled in the U.S. with the American woman who would be her lifelong companion and translator. Her works are noted for their rigorously classical style, their erudition, and their psychologi¬ cal subtlety. Her masterpiece is Memoirs of Hadrian (1951), a his¬ torical novel of the 2nd-century Roman Empire. Other works include the novels Coup de grace (1939) and The Abyss (1968), Oriental Tales (1938), and the prose poem “Fires”

(1936). In 1980 she became the first woman in history to be elected to the Academie Francaise.

youth hostel Supervised shelter providing inexpensive overnight lodg¬ ing, particularly for young people. Often located in scenic or historic areas, hostels range from simple farmhouses to hotels able to house sev¬ eral hundred people. Guests often cook their own meals, make their own beds, and do other chores; in return they receive lodging at much less than the usual commercial rate. Hostels place limits on the length of stay and formerly set a maximum-age limit for guests. The hosteling move¬ ment was founded by Richard Schirrmann, a German schoolteacher con-

Marguerite Yourcenar, 1971.

GIS^LE FREUND 1971

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2100 I Ypres ► Yudenich

cemed about the health of young people breathing polluted air in industrial cities. Common in Germany in the early 1900s, youth hostels spread through Europe and other parts of the world after World War I, and an international organization was formed in 1932; currently known as Hos¬ telling International and based in London, its membership includes national federations in more than 60 countries, comprising some 4,000 hostels. Some hostels still impose age limits.

Ypres VeprA, Battles of Three costly battles in World War I in west¬ ern Flanders. In the first battle (Oct. 12-Nov. 11, 1914), the Germans were stopped on their march to the sea, but the Allied forces were then sur¬ rounded on three sides. The second battle (April 22-May 25, 1915) marked the Germans’ first use of poison gas as a weapon. In the third and longest battle (July 31-Nov. 6, 1917), also called the Battle of Pass- chendaele, the British were initially successful in breaking through the left wing of the German lines. The seasonal rains soon turned the Flanders countryside into an impassable swamp, but Gen. Douglas Haig persisted in his offensive. On November 6 Haig’s troops, including the Canadian Corps, occupied the ruins of Passchendaele, barely five miles from the start of the offensive. Total Allied and German casualties exceeded 850,000, including the deaths of 325,000 British soldiers.

Ypsilanti family \,ip-s3-'lan-te\ Greek family prominent in the 19th century. Early members were Greek Phanariots (residents of the Greek quarter of Constantinople) distinguished in the Ottoman imperial service. Constantine Ypsilanti (1760-1816) was governor of Moldavia (1799— 1801) and Walachia (1802-6) when he encouraged Serbians to rebel against Turkey. He was forced to flee to Russia, where his son Alexander Ypsilanti (1792-1828) became an officer in the Russian imperial guard. As the leader of the secret Greek organization Philikf Etaireia (1820), he promoted the cause of Greek freedom and led an unsuccessful attack on the Turks at Dragasani (1821). His brother, Demetrios Ypsilanti (1793— 1832), carried on the cause in the War of Greek Independence and served as commander of the Greek forces 1828-30.

Yrigoyen, Hipolito See Hipolito Irigoyen

Yser River \e-'zer\ River, northern France and Belgium. Rising in north¬ ern France, it flows through western Belgium and enters the North Sea near Nieuwpoort after a course of 48 mi (77 km). Its estuary was prob¬ ably as far inland as Loo into the 10th century, but gradual land reclama¬ tion has since reduced it to a narrow tidal creek. During World War I (1914) the German advance toward Calais and the English Channel coast was halted at the river when Nieuwpoort sluices were flooded; this checked the German advance and allowed the Allies to set up an impreg¬ nable position.

Ysyk .i-sik. Lake Russian Lake Issyk-Kul* \,i-sik-'k3l\ Lake, northeastern Kyrgyzstan. Situated in the northern Tien Shan, it is one of the largest mountain lakes in the world, having a surface area of some 2,425 sq mi (6,280 sq km) and reaching 2,303 ft (702 m) in depth. Its name (from the Kyrgyz word for “hot lake”) refers to the fact that it does not freeze during the winter. To conserve the lake’s wildlife, the Issyk- KuP Preserve was founded in 1948.

Yuan Chiang See Red River

Yuan dynasty or Yuan \yu-'an\ dynasty or Mongol dynasty

(1206-1368) Dynasty established in China by Mongol nomads. Genghis Khan occupied northern China in 1215, but not until 1279 did Kublai Khan take control of southern China. The Mongols established their capital at Beijing (then called Dadu). They rebuilt the Grand Canal and put the roads and postal stations in good order. Paper money, which had had lim¬ ited circulation under the Song, came to be used throughout the empire. Advances were made in astronomy, medicine, and mathematics, and trade was carried out throughout the Mongol empire from the plains of eastern Europe across the steppes to Mongolia and China. Many foreigners came to China (notably Marco Polo), and many Chinese traveled to Iran, Rus¬ sia, and even western Europe. The Chinese resented the Mongol conquer¬ ors, whose governmental system discriminated against them. Chinese artists demonstrated passive resistance by withdrawing and turning to personal expression. Literati painting became popular; the novel devel¬ oped, and new dramatic forms also appeared. Disputes over succession weakened the central government from 1300 on, and rebellions were fre¬ quent, many connected with secret societies such as the Red Turbans. The dynasty was overthrown in 1368 by the future Hongwu emperor. See also Ming dynasty.

Yuan Vywen, 'ywan\ River River, southeast-central China. It rises in Guizhou province, then flows northeast in Hunan province to Dongting Lake. It is some 635 mi (1,020 km) long and is navigable for most of its course.

Yuan Shikai or Yuan Shih-kai Vyu-'an-'shir-'kA (b. Sept. 16, 1859, Xiangcheng, Henan province, China—-d. June 6, 1916, Beijing) Chinese army leader and president of the Republic of China (1912-16). He began his military career serving in Korea in the 1880s. In 1885 he was made Chinese commissioner at Seoul; his promotion of China’s interests con¬ tributed to the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). The war destroyed China’s navy and army, and the task of training a new army fell to Yuan. When his division was the only one to survive the Boxer Rebel¬ lion (1900), his political stature increased. He played a decisive part in China’s modernization and defense programs and enjoyed the support of the empress dowager Cixi. On her death he was dismissed, only to be called back following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911-12, when he became the first president of the new republic; Sun Yat-sen had previously served as the provisional president. Impatient with the new National Assembly, he ordered the assassination of Song Jiaoren, leader of the Nationalist Party in 1913. He quelled a subsequent revolt, but his efforts to found his own dynasty (1915-16) failed.

yuca See cassava

Yucatan \yu-ka-'tan\ State (pop., 2000: 1,658,210), northern Yucatan Peninsula, southeastern Mexico. It covers an area of 14,827 sq mi (38,402 sq km); its capital is Merida. Yucatan occupied virtually the entire pen¬ insula when it became a state in 1824, but the creation of the states of Campeche (1858) and Quintana Roo (1902) from parts of Yucatan, as well as later boundary changes, reduced it to its present size. Long occupied by rural Maya Indians who speak little Spanish, it is the site of many ancient Maya ruins.

Yucatan Peninsula Peninsula, northeastern Central America. It lies between the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; its 76,300-sq-mi (197,600-sq-km) territory includes the Mexican states of Campeche, Quin¬ tana Roo, and YucatAn and, in the south, large parts of Belize and Gua¬ temala. It is about 200 mi (320 km) wide and has a coastline of about 700 mi (1,100 km). The area had long been home to many pre-Columbian civilizations before Spanish explorer HernAn Cortes traversed its inland portion in 1525. Spanish rule was subsequently established, but since that time many independent Maya Indians have kept to its inland rural areas and resisted the authority of the central government. Its coastal area, with many beaches and resorts, and its ancient archaeological sites, including Chichen ItzA, Uaxactun, and Uxmal, are major tourist destinations, as is the resort city of Cancun.

yucca Vyo-,k3\ Any of about 40 species of succulent plants (genus Yucca ) of the uly family, native to southern North America. Most species lack a stem and have a rosette of stiff, sword-shaped leaves at the base and clusters of waxy white flowers. The Joshua tree (K brevifolia) has a stem more than 33 ft (10 m) high. Com¬ monly cultivated as ornamentals for their unusual appearance and attrac¬ tive flower clusters are the aptly named Spanish bayonet ( Y. aloifo- lia ), Spanish dagger (Y. gloriosa ), and Adam’s needle, or bear grass {Y. filamentosa ). Yucca moths (genus Tegeticula ) inhabit yucca bushes, each moth species adapted to a par¬ ticular yucca species. The yucca can be fertilized by no other insect, and the moth can use no other plant to raise its larvae.

Yudenich \yii-'dye-nyich\, Nikolay (Nikolayevich) (b. July 30, 1862, Moscow, Russia—d. Oct. 5, 1933, Saint-Laurent-du-Var, France) Russian commander of anti-BoLSHEViK forces in the Russian Civil War. A career army officer who joined the Imperial Army in 1879, he commanded in the Russo-Japanese War and was promoted to general in 1905. In World War I he led Russian troops in the Caucasus (1914-15, 1917). After retir¬ ing to Estonia, he organized anti-Bolshevik forces there and launched an

Yucca

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YueFei ► YWCA I 2101

unsuccessful offensive toward Petrograd (St. Petersburg). He renewed his offensive in coordination with other White forces but was stopped by the Red Army and forced to retreat to Estonia, where he disbanded his army (1920). He fled to France, where he died in exile.

Yue Fei or Yueh Fei \yt£-'e-'fa\ (b. 1103, Tangyin, Henan province, China—d. Jan. 27, 1142, Lin’an, Zhejiang province) One of China’s greatest generals and national heroes. When the Juchen overran northern China and captured the Song-dynasty capital at Kaifeng, Yue Fei accom¬ panied the future emperor Gaozong into the south, where the Southern Song was established. Yue Fei prevented the advance of the Juchen in the south and was able to recover and secure some of the occupied territory in central China. His attempt to push north and recapture all of the lost territory was opposed by the minister Qin Hui, who had Yue executed. Yue has been extolled for his resistance to foreign domination.

yuga Vyu-g3\ Unit of the cosmic cycle in Hindu cosmology. Each yuga is progressively shorter than the preceding one, corresponding to a decline in the moral and physical state of humanity. Four such yugas make up a mahayuga; 2,000 mahayugas make up the basic cosmic cycle, the kalpa. The first yuga was an age of perfection that lasted 1,728,000 years. The fourth and most degenerate yuga began in 3102 bc and will last 432,000 years. At the close of this yuga, the world will be destroyed, to be re¬ created after a period of quiescence as the cycle resumes.

Yugoslavia Former federated country situated on the west-central Bal¬ kan Peninsula of southern Europe. Between 1929 and 2003, three fed¬ erations bore the name Yugoslavia (“Land of the South Slavs”). After the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 ended Turkish rule in the Balkan Peninsula and Austria-Hungary was defeated in World War I, a Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was established, comprising the former kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro (including Serbian-held Macedonia), as well as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austrian territory in Dalmatia and Slo¬ venia, and Hungarian land north of the Danube River. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia, officially proclaimed in 1929 by King Alexander I and lasting until World War II, covered 95,576 sq mi (247,542 sq km). The postwar Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia covered 98,766 sq mi (255,804 sq km) and had a population of about 24 million by 1991. In addition to Serbia and Montenegro, socialist Yugoslavia included four other repub¬ lics now recognized as independent states: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia. The “third Yugoslavia,” inaugurated on April 27, 1992, had roughly 45% of the population and 40% of the area of its predecessor and consisted of the republics of Serbia and Mon¬ tenegro, which in 2003 abandoned the name Yugoslavia and renamed the country Serbia and Montenegro.

Historical map of Yugoslavia showing the boundaries of the country from 1946 to 1992.

Yukaghir See Siberian peoples

Yukon or Yukon Territory Territory (pop., 2001 est.: 30,000), north¬ western Canada. Bounded by Alaska, U.S., to the west, and the Canadian Northwest Territories to the east and British Columbia to the south, its capital is Whitehorse. Drained by the Yukon River system, it has some of the highest mountains in North America, notably the Saint Elias Moun¬ tains and Mount Logan, Canada’s highest peak. It was originally settled by American Indians and the Inuit (Eskimo). The first European visitor (1825) was British explorer John Franklin, who was seeking the North¬ west Passage. Sporadic settlement occurred thereafter. The discovery of gold in the 1870s later resulted in the Klondike gold rush. In 1898 it was separated from the Northwest Territories and given territorial status. The economic boost from the gold rush soon abated, and the exploitation of other minerals expanded and continued throughout the 20th century. Its economic mainstays, though, are government services and tourism.

Yukon River River, northwestern North America. Formed by the con¬ fluence of the Lewes and Pelly rivers in southwestern Yukon Territory, Can., it is 1,980 mi (3,190 km) long. It flows northwest across the Yukon border into Alaska, then southwest across central Alaska to the Bering Sea. It is the third longest river in North America; its entire course of 1,265 mi (2,035 km) in Alaska is navigable. It attracted attention following the rich gold strikes in 1896 on one of its Canadian tributaries, the Klondike River (see Klondike gold rush).

Yuma \'yu-ma\ Any of various North American Indian peoples living mostly in California and Arizona, U.S. Their languages belong to the Hokan language family. They once lived in the lower Colorado River val¬ ley and adjacent areas in Arizona, California, and Mexico. The river Yuma (including the Mojave, Yuma, and Maricopa) lived along the lower Colo¬ rado and middle Gila rivers; the upland Yuma (including the Hualapai, Havasupai, and Yavapai) inhabited western Arizona south of the Grand Canyon. The river Yuma were primarily farmers; the upland Yuma also practiced hunting and gathering. Both lacked settled villages. Yuma reli¬ gion is characterized by belief in a supreme creator, faith in dreams, and ritual use of song narratives. At the turn of the 21st century, they num¬ bered more than 4,000.

Yun-nan See Yunnan

Yung-lo emperor See Yongle emperor

Yung-ning See Nanning

Yungang Yyuen-'gagN caves or Yun-kang caves Series of mag¬ nificent Chinese Buddhist cave temples, created in the 5th century ad dur¬ ing the Northern Wei dynasty period. There are about 20 major cave temples and many smaller niches and caves, stretching for over half a mile. They are among the earliest remaining examples of the first flow¬ ering of Buddhist art in China. The predominant sculptural style is a syn¬ thesis of various foreign influences, including Persian, Byzantine, and Greek, with elements ultimately derived from the Buddhist art of India.

Yunnan Vyui-'nanV or Yun-nan Province (pop., 2002 est.: 43,330,000), southern China. It is bordered by Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar, Sichuan and Guizhou provinces, and Guangxi and Tibet autonomous regions. It has an area of 168,400 sq mi (436,200 sq km), and its capital is Kunming. Its population is one of China’s most ethnically mixed, comprising more than 20 nationalities. The terrain is largely mountainous, especially in the north and west. It is crossed by three major river systems—the Yangtze (Chang; there known as the Jinsha), the Mekong, and the Salween —and is the source of two others—the Xi (there known as the Nanpan and Hongshui) and the Yuan. Because of its isolation, the region was independent dur¬ ing the historical development of China. The Mongols overran it in the 13th century. In 1855-73 it was the scene of the great Panthay (Muslim) rebellion. Part of the province was seized by the Japanese in World War II. Yunnan is now noted for its agricultural production, especially of rice, as well as for its extensive mining industry.

Yunnan See Kunming YWCA See YMCA

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2102 I Z particle ► Zambia

Z particle Electrically neutral carrier of the weak force and the neutral partner of the electrically charged W particle. It is nearly 100 times more massive than the proton and has a lifetime of only about 10 -25 second. Z particles were first observed in 1983 by Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer at CERN. Further studies have shown a natural variation in mass that is related to the particle’s lifetime through the uncertainty principle. Measurements show that when Z particles decay to neutrino-antineutrino pairs (see pair production), they produce only three types of lightweight neutrino, indicating that there are only three sets each of leptons and QUARKS.

Zab \'zab\ River Either of two tributaries of the Tigris River. The Great Zab rises in the mountains of Kurdistan and flows about 260 mi (420 km) south and southwest through south¬ eastern Turkey and northern Iraq, joining the Tigris below Mosul, Iraq. The Little Zab flows about 230 mi (370 m) through northwestern Iran and northern Iraq before entering the Tigris about 50 mi (80 km) below the Great Zab. The two rivers double the flow of the Tigris during the floods of March and April.

Zacatecas \,sa-ka-'ta-kas\ State (pop., 2000: 1,353,610), north- central Mexico. It covers an area of 28,283 sq mi (73,252 sq km); its capital is Zacatecas city. Located within a central pla¬ teau, it is traversed by several mountain ranges; the state’s average elevation is about 7,700 ft (2,350 m). Its mineral wealth was discovered soon after the Spanish conquest, and some of its mines date from the mid-16th century.

Agriculture, livestock raising, and meat processing are also important to the economy.

Zacatecas City (pop., 2000: 113,947), capital of Zacatecas state, Mexico. It lies in a deep, narrow ravine about 8,200 ft (2,500 m) above sea level. Founded in 1548, two years after silver was discovered in the area, it was given city status in 1585. Until the 19th century, the mines around Zacatecas yielded one-fifth of the world’s sil¬ ver. Mining is still important to the economy, but the city is also a com¬ mercial and manufacturing centre and is noted for its cathedral. The extensive Indian ruins of Chicomoztoc are nearby, southwest of the city.

zaddik See tzaddiq

Zadkine \zad-'ken\, Ossip (b. July 14, 1890, Smolensk, Russia—d. Nov. 25, 1967, Paris, France) Russian-born French sculptor. Educated in England, he moved to Paris in 1909 and studied at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts. Influenced by both Cubism and Classical Greek sculpture, he devel¬ oped a unique figurative style featuring concave and convex forms, lines, and parallel planes. During World War II he taught at New York City’s Art Students League. His large bronze To a Destroyed City (1951-53), an homage to Rotterdam, is regarded as a masterpiece. In 1950 he received the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and in the 1960s he received commissions for statues in Jerusalem, Amsterdam, and else¬ where.

Zadokite Fragments See Damascus Document

Zaghlul \zag-'lul\, Sa‘d (b. July 1857, Ibyanah, Egypt—d. Aug. 23, 1927, Cairo) Egyptian statesman. He initially cooperated with the British occupation of Egypt, but his attitude changed on his election to the Leg¬ islative Assembly in 1912. Britain declared martial law, established a pro¬ tectorate, and dissolved the assembly during World War I (1914-18), after which he led a delegation (Arabic: wafd) that demanded recognition as the people’s representatives and called for abolition of the British pro¬ tectorate. When these requests were turned down, widespread disorder broke out that was not quelled even when Zaghlul, who had been deported to Malta, was brought back and was elected prime minister at the head of the Wafd party in 1924. He resigned after a year of violent unrest but later served as president of the Chamber of Deputies, where he was able to exercise some control over his more extreme followers.

Zagreb \'za-,greb\ City (pop., 2001: 691,724), capital of Croatia. It was first mentioned in 1093, when a Roman Catholic bishopric was established there. In medieval times the area contained a civil and an ecclesiastical settlement. Rivals until the 19th century, they were joined when a spate of new building occurred and expanded onto the Sava River floodplain. At the time of the Croatian national revival in the 19th century, Zagreb was the centre of both a pan-Yugoslav movement and a Croatian independence movement. During the civil war following Croatia’s secession from Yugo¬

slavia in 1991, Zagreb sustained heavy damage. It is Croatia’s principal industrial centre. It is also the seat of the Academy of Sciences and Arts and of the University of Zagreb (1669).

Zagreus Vza-gre-os, 'za-gre-3s\ In Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and his daughter Persephone. Zeus intended to make Zagreus his heir and bestow on him unlimited power, but a jealous Hera urged the Titans to attack the child. They tore Zagreus to pieces and consumed all but his heart, which Athena managed to save and bring to Zeus, who swallowed it. Zeus then begot a son with Semele, and this child, made from the heart of Zagreus, was Dionysus.

Zaharias \z3-'har-e-3s\, Babe Didrikson or Babe Didrikson orig. Mildred Ella Didrikson (b. June 26, 1911, Port Arthur, Texas, U.S.—d. Sept. 27, 1956, Galveston, Texas) U.S. athlete who excelled in several sports. She became a remarkable performer in basketball and track and field and later a leading golfer. In 1930-32 she was a mem¬ ber of the women’s All-America basketball team. During the same period she also won eight events and tied in a ninth in national championship competition in track and field. In the 1932 Olympics she won gold medals in the 80-m hurdles and javelin throw; she was deprived of the high-jump gold medal for using a then-unorthodox method. As a golfer from 1946, she won numerous championships, including the U.S. and British women’s amateur tournaments (1946, 1947) and the U.S. Women’s Open (1948, 1950, 1954).

zaibatsu \zl-'bat-su\ Japanese "wealthy clique" Large capitalist enterprises of pre-World War II Japan, similar to cartels or trusts but usually orga¬ nized around a single family. One zaibatsu might oper¬ ate companies in many areas of economic importance; all zaibatsu owned their own banks, which they used as a means for mobilizing capital. After the war the zaibatsu were dissolved: stock owned by the parent compa¬ nies was put up for sale and individual companies were freed from the control of parent companies. After the signing of the peace treaty in 1951, many companies began associating into what became known as enterprise groups; these differed from zaibatsu primarily in the informal manner that characterized policy coordination and in the limited degree of financial interdependency between member companies. Modern-day keiretsu are similar.

za'Im \za-'em\ Political leader, either an officeholder or power broker. The term has been used especially in Lebanon, where it designated the power brokers of the various sectarian communities.

Zaire See Democratic Republic of the Congo

Zaire River See Congo River

Zama \'za-mo\, Battle of (202 bc) Engagement in which the Romans under Scipio Africanus the Elder decisively defeated the Carthaginians led by Hannibal, ending the Second Punic War. As the Romans marched on Carthage, Hannibal returned from Italy to defend the city. He was over¬ whelmed by a combined force of Romans and Numidians under Masi- nissa. Carthage ceded Spain to Rome, gave up most of its ships, and began paying a 50-year indemnity to Rome.

Zambezi \zam-'be-ze\ River River, south-central Africa. It rises in northwestern Zambia, flows south across eastern Angola and western Zambia to the border of Botswana, then turns east and forms the Zambia- Zimbabwe border. It then crosses central Mozambique and empties into the Mozambique Channel at Chinde. About 2,200 mi (3,500 km) long, it is navigable in three long stretches, separated by rapids and by Victoria Falls. It drains the entire south-central region of the continent. Its many tributaries include the Kwando, Kafue, and Shire. It was explored by David Livingstone in the early 1850s.

Zambia officially Republic of Zambia formerly Northern Rho¬ desia Landlocked country, south-central Africa. Area: 290,585 sq mi (752,612 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 11,262,000. Capital: Lusaka. The population is composed almost entirely of BANTU-speaking African ethnic groups. Languages: English (official); some 80 local languages are also spoken. Religions: Christianity (Protestant, other Christians, Roman Catholic); also traditional beliefs, Islam. Currency: kwacha. The country consists of a high plateau through which the Zambezi (including Victoria Falls), Kafue, and Luangwa rivers flow. Lakes Mweru and Tanganyika touch

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Zamboanga ► Zapopan I 2103

ZAMBIA

U_ \

9 ioc

200 mi

6 150

300 km

Zambia’s northern boundaries, and Lake Bangweulu and the Bangweulu Swamps form extensive wetlands farther to the south. The Muchinga Mountains in the east and the ranges along the eastern border have the highest elevations in the country. There are forests of Zambezi teak in the southwest. Zambia’s economy depends heavily on the pro¬ duction and export of copper. Other important mineral resources include lead, zinc, cobalt, coal, and gold. Agriculture also is important. There is some manufacturing. Zambia is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. Ancestors of the Tonga reached the region early in the 2nd millennium ad, but other peoples from Congo (Kinshasa) and Angola reached the country only in the 17th—18th century. Portuguese trading missions were established early in the 18th century. Emissaries of Cecil Rhodes and the British South Africa Company concluded treaties with most of the Zambian chiefs during the 1890s. The company administered the region known as Northern Rhodesia until 1924, when it became a British protectorate. It was part of the Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953—63. In 1964 Northern Rhodesia became independent as the Republic of Zambia. A constitutional amendment enacted in 1991 allowed opposition parties. However, the country continued to experience political tension and government corrup¬ tion.

Zamboanga \,zam-bo-'waq-ga\ Port city (pop., 2000: 601,794), west¬ ern Mindanao, Philippines. Founded in 1635 as a fort by the Spanish, it later became the chief market of the southern Philippines. In World War II it was a Japanese defense headquarters and was taken by U.S. troops in 1945. It exports rubber, pearls, copra, and mahogany and is a centre for Moro brass ware and bronze ware. It is also a tourist resort.

Zamora, Niceto Alcala See Niceto Alcala Zamora

Zamyatin \ 1 za-'mya-t y in\, Yevgeny (Ivanovich) or Yevgeny Zamiatin (b. Feb. 1, 1884, Lebedyan, Tambov province, Russia—d. March 10, 1937, Paris, France) Russian novelist, playwright, and satirist. Educated as a naval engineer, he combined a scientific career with writ¬ ing. A chronic dissenter, he was a Bolshevik before the Russian Revolu¬ tion of 1917 but disassociated himself from the party afterward. His ironic criticism of literary politics kept him out of official favour. His most ambitious work, the novel We (1924; banned in the Soviet Union until 1989), was the first anti-utopian novel and the literary ancestor of Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World and George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-four.

Zande \'zan-de\ or Azande \o-'zan-de\ People of central Africa who live in The Sudan, Congo (Kinshasa), and Central African Republic. They speak an Adamawa-Ubangi language of the Niger-Congo family. They

occupy widely scattered family homesteads, subsisting through agricul¬ ture and hunting. Patrilineal clans are numerous. Witchcraft, magic, and divination are major features of social life. The Zande number about 3.8 million.

Zangwill Vzaq-gwilV, Israel (b. Feb. 14, 1864, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 1, 1926, Midhurst, West Sussex) English novelist, playwright, and Zion¬ ist leader. The son of eastern European immigrants, Zangwill drew on his own experience in Children of the Ghetto (1892), which aroused great interest. His The King of Schnorrers (1894) is a picaresque novel about an 18th-century rogue, and Dreamers of the Ghetto { 1898) contains essays on famous Jews. The metaphor of America as a crucible wherein various nationalities are transformed into a new race comes from his play The Melting Pot (1908). He is remembered as one of the earliest English interpreters of Jewish immigrant life.

Zanuck Vza-nokN, Darryl F(rancis) (b. Sept. 5, 1902, Wahoo, Neb., U.S.—d. Dec. 22, 1979, Palm Springs, Calif.) U.S. film producer and executive. He worked as a steelworker, garment factory foreman, and a professional boxer while pursuing his career as a writer, and in 1924 he was hired as a screenwriter for Warner Brothers. After writing scripts for more than 35 movies, he was made a producer. He promoted the conver¬ sion to sound by producing The Jazz Singer (1927). In 1933 he cofounded Twentieth Century Pictures, which soon merged with the Fox Film Corp. As the controlling executive of Twentieth Century-Fox, he produced films such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940), Gentleman’s Agreement (1947), and Viva Zapata! (1952). He resigned in 1956, but he returned as president in 1962 to effect the company’s financial recovery with hits such as The Longest Day (1962), The Sound of Music (1965), and Patton (1970). He retired as chairman in 1971.

Zanzibar Chief island (pop., 2002: 622,459) of Tanzania. Located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of east-central Africa, it has an area of 637 sq mi (1,651 sq km). Zanzibar city (pop., 2002: 205,870), the island’s principal port and commercial centre, is on the western side. Both Zan¬ zibar and Pemba islands are believed to have once formed part of the African continent. In the late 17th century, Zanzibar came under the con¬ trol of Omani Arabs, and the sultan of Oman made Zanzibar city his capi¬ tal in 1832. In 1861 Zanzibar was separated from Oman and became an independent sultanate. Under Sultan Barghash (r. 1870-88), most of the mainland territories were lost to European powers. In 1890 the British proclaimed a protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba islands. In 1963 the sultanate regained its independence and became a member of the Com¬ monwealth. The sultanate was overthrown in 1964, and a republic was established. It then joined with Tanganyika to form the Republic of Tan¬ zania. The economy depends on agriculture and fishing.

Zapata \sa-'pa-ta\, Emilia no (b. Aug. 8, 1879, Anenecuilco, Mex.—d. April 10, 1919, Morelos) Mexican revolutionary and champion of the rural poor. A mestizo peasant, he was orphaned at age 17 and took respon¬ sibility for his brothers and sisters.

He led his neighbours in protests against the hacienda that had appro¬ priated their land and eventually led them in taking the land by force. He organized a small force to help Fran¬ cisco Madero unseat Porfirio Diaz.

Dissatisfied with the pace of land reform under Madero, Zapata led a guerrilla campaign that took land back from the haciendas and returned it to the communal Indian EJiDOs. He was instrumental in the defeat of Gen. Victoriano Huerta after Huerta deposed and assassi¬ nated Madero. With Pancho Villa he occupied Mexico City and began to implement land reform, but he was tricked, ambushed, and killed by the forces of Venustiano Carranza, whom the U.S. had recognized as president.

Zapopan \,sa-po-'pan\ City (pop., 2000: 910,690), north-central Jalisco state, west-central Mexico. Located in the Guadalajara River valley, it is

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2104 I Zaporizhzhya ► zebra mussel

a commercial and manufacturing centre for an agricultural area that pro¬ duces com, sugarcane, cotton, fruits and vegetables, and livestock. Bee¬ keeping and tourism also contribute to the economy. The 17th-century Basilica of Zapopan is the site of annual pilgrimages.

Zaporizhzhya V.zap-o-'ri-zhoV formerly (until 1921) Aleksan¬ drovs k City (pop., 2001: 815,000), on the Dnieper River in southeastern Ukraine. In 1770 the fortress of Aleksandrovsk was built to ensure gov¬ ernment control over the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, whose headquarters were nearby. The settlement became a town in 1806. The city expanded during the 1927-32 construction of the Dnieper hydroelectric station, then the largest in the world. The dam was destroyed in World War II but was later rebuilt. Zaporizhzhya has a major iron and steel plant; automobiles are also manufactured.

Zapotec \,za-p3-'tek\ Indian population living in the state of Oaxaca, southern Mexico. Early Zapotec civilization, centred on Monte Alban (near the modern city of Oaxaca), produced the first writing in Mesoamer- ica and devised the 52-year round calendar later borrowed by other groups. Present-day traditional Zapotec society is largely agricultural, and members practice shifting cultivation. The major crafts include pottery and weaving. The Zapotecs profess Roman Catholicism, but belief in spirits and myths persists. See also Mesoamerican civilization.

Zara, Siege of (1202) Major episode of the Fourth Crusade, the first attack on a Christian city by a Crusading army. Zara (modern Zadar, Cro.), a vassal city of Venice, had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary’s protection in 1186. Over the objections of Pope Innocent III, the Venetians diverted the Fourth Crusade from Palestine and Egypt, using financial pressure to persuade the Crusaders to besiege Zara. The city soon sur¬ rendered, and the army went on to attack Constantinople in 1203-04.

Zaragoza \,za-ra-'go-sa\ or Saragossa \,sar-9-'ga-s3\ City (pop., 2001: 614,905), northeastern Spain. The capital of the Aragon autono¬ mous community ( comunidad autonoma ), Zaragoza is located on the southern bank of the Ebro River. The Celtiberian town of Salduba at the site was taken by the Romans at the end of the 1st century bc and made a colony named Caesaraugusta, from which its present name derives. It became an episcopal see in the 3rd century ad, and it was taken by the Moors c. 714. It was the capital of the kingdom of Aragon from the 12th to the 15th century. It underwent two sieges (1808-09) by the French, which were commemorated in Lord Byron’s Childe Harold. It is an indus¬ trial centre and the site of the annual National Trade Fair. Notable build¬ ings include Romanesque and Gothic churches and palaces. Its university was founded in 1474.

Zarathustra See Zoroaster

Zaria \'zar-e-o\ formerly Zazzau Historic kingdom and traditional emirate, northern Nigeria. It was founded in the 11th century and was the southernmost of the original seven Hausa Bakwai states. Islam was intro¬ duced c. 1456, and there were Muslim Hausa rulers in the early 16th cen¬ tury. A Songhai warrior conquered Zazzau c. 1512. By the end of the century it was renamed Zaria and was in decline. It became a tributary state (c. 1734-1804) of the Bornu kingdom. In 1804 it came under the Fulani Muslims. The Zaria emirate was created in 1835. It remains one of Nigeria’s largest traditional emirates, and it is one of the nation’s lead¬ ing producers of cotton for export.

Zarlino \dzar-'le-no\, Gioseffo (b. March 22, 1517, Chioggia, Rep. of Venice—d. Feb. 14, 1590, Venice) Italian music theorist and composer. In 1541 he was ordained a deacon and moved to Venice to study music with Adrian Willaert (c. 1490-1562). He later took over as chapel master at San Marco Basilica. His influential treatise Le institutioni harmoniche (1558) argued for more stringent control of dissonance (while accepting several previously dissonant intervals as consonances) and stricter adher¬ ence to unity of mode in a composition. In Dimonstrationi harmoniche (1571) he renumbered the church modes, starting with C instead of the traditional A, thus acknowledging the growing relevance of tonality.

zarzuela V.zar-'zwa-loV Spanish musical play consisting of spoken dia¬ logue, songs, choruses, and dances. Zarzuela originated in the 1650s as an aristocratic entertainment, the first being performed at the royal resi¬ dence of La Zarzuela near Madrid. The principal early composer was Juan Hidalgo (1614-85); early librettists included Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderon de la Barca. As Italian opera rose in popularity in the 18th cen¬ tury, the zarzuela adopted aspects of opera seria style but suffered a

decline. It was revived c. 1840 as a satirical treatment of everyday life incorporating folk music, dance, and improvisation. Since 1940 few new works have been written.

Zatopek Vtsa-to-.pekX, Emil (b. Sept. 19,1922, Koprivnice, Czech.—d. Nov. 22, 2000, Prague, Cz.Rep.) Czech long-distance runner. He won his first Olympic gold medal in 1948 in the 10,000-m race. At the 1952 Olympics he won gold medals in the 5,000-m, 10,000-m, and marathon. From the mid-1940s to the mid-1950s he set 18 world records, and he held the record for the 10,000-m from 1949 to 1954.

zazen \'za-'zen\ Sitting meditation as practiced in Zen Buddhism. The disciple sits in a quiet room, breathing rhythmically and easily, with legs fully or half crossed, spine and head erect, hands folded one palm above the other, and eyes open. Logical, analytic thinking is suspended, as are all desires, attachments, and judgments, leaving the mind in a state of relaxed attention. The practice was brought to prominence by Dogen, who considered it not only to be a method of moving toward enlightenment but also, if properly experienced, to constitute enlightenment itself. See also KOAN.

Zealand See Sjaelland

Zeami \za-'a-me\ or Seami or Kanze Motokiyo (b. 1363, Japan—d. Sept. 1, 1443, Kyoto?) Japanese playwright and theorist of the no theatre. Under the patronage of the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Zeami joined with his father, Kan’ami (1333-84), to create the no theatre in its present form. He is credited with about 90 (and most of the great¬ est) of the approximately 230 plays in the present repertoire. In treatises written as manuals for his pupils, notably Fushi kaden (1400-18; “The Transmission of the Flower of Acting Style”), he set forth principles of no theatre that were followed for centuries.

zebra Any of three species of black-and-white-striped equines that subsist almost entirely on grass. Zebras stand 47-55 in. (120-140 cm) tall. The Burchell’s zebra, or bonte quagga (Equus quagga ), of eastern and southern African grasslands, has wide, widely spaced stripes. Grevy’s zebra ( E . grevyi), of arid areas in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia, has narrow, closely spaced stripes and a white belly. The small mountain zebra (E. zebra), of dry upland plains in Namibia and western South Africa, has a gridlike pat¬ tern on the rump. Small zebra groups consisting of a stallion and several mares and foals may coalesce into large herds but retain their identity.

Burchell's zebra, or bonte quagga (Equus quagga)

LEONARD LEE RUE III

zebra fish Any member of two unrelated groups of fishes: freshwater species in the genus Brachydanio (family Cyprinidae) and saltwater spe¬ cies in the genus Pterois (family Scorpaenidae). The zebra danio (Brachy¬ danio rerio), a popular freshwater aquarium fish originally from Asia, grows to about 1.5 in. (4 cm) long and has dark blue and silvery longi¬ tudinal stripes. The distinctive saltwater zebra fishes (Pterois), used in marine aquariums, have extremely large pectoral fins, numerous extremely poisonous spines, and colourful vertical stripes. Some species are more commonly known as lionfish and turkeyfish.

zebra mussel Either of two species of tiny mussels (genus Dreissena) that are prominent freshwater pests. They proliferate quickly and adhere in

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

zebu ► Zeno of Citium I 2105

great numbers to virtually any surface. The voracious mussels disrupt food webs by wiping out phytoplankton, and their massive clustering on water- intake valves and pipes, bridge abutments, and other structures can cause severe commercial damage. They made their first known attack on Europe in the early 19th century and were carried (probably in ship water ballasts) to North America c. 1986; their invasion of all the Great Lakes has had devastating effects on the lakes’ native mussel and fish populations.

zebu See Brahman

Zechariah \,zek-9-'rI-9\ (fl. 6th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Proph¬ ets of the Hebrew scriptures, whose prophecies are recorded in the book of Zechariah. (The work is part of a larger book. The Twelve, in the Jew¬ ish canon.) His visions concern the return of the Jews to Jerusalem after the Babylonian Exile, the rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem, and the world’s recognition of Israel’s God. The book also includes his apoca¬ lyptic visions of the end of time.

Zedillo \sa-'de-yo\ (Ponce de Leon), Ernesto (b. Dec. 27, 1951, Mexico City, Mex.) President of Mexico (1994-2000). Raised in a working-class family, he joined Mexico’s ruling party in 1971 and earned a Ph.D. in economics from Yale University. As secretary of the Ministry of Programming and Budget, he controlled Mexico’s huge foreign debt, reduced inflation, and balanced the budget. Elected president after the assassination of the original PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) can¬ didate, Luis Donaldo Colosio, he undertook reforms to reduce poverty, root out corruption, and continue democratizing the electoral system. His devaluation of the peso in 1994 led to an economic crisis that was turned around with massive U.S. aid. A rebellion in Chiapas plagued his admin¬ istration, which was charged with human-rights abuses in that region.

Zee, James Van Der See James Van Der Zee

Zeeman \'za-,man\ effect Splitting of a spectral line (see spectrum) into two or more lines of different frequencies. The effect occurs when the light source is placed in a magnetic field. It has helped identify the energy levels in atoms; it also provides a means of studying atomic nuclei and electron paramagnetic resonance (see magnetic resonance) and is used in measuring the magnetic field of the Sun and other stars. It was discovered in 1896 by Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943); he shared the second Nobel Prize for Physics (1902) with Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, who had hypothesized that a magnetic field would affect the frequency of the light emitted.

Zefat \'tse-,fat\ City (pop., 2004 est.: 27,300), northern Israel. Located near Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), it is one of the four holy cities of Juda¬ ism. It was fortified in the 1st century ad by Flavius Josephus and in the Middle Ages by the Crusaders (see Crusades). It was the seat of an impor¬ tant school of Jewish mysticism (see Kabbala) in the 16th century, and it became part of the modem State of Israel in 1948. It is now an artists’ colony, with an economy based on light industry and tourism.

Zeffirelli \,ze-f9-'re-le. Franco orig. Gianfranco Corsi (b. Feb. 12, 1923, Florence, Italy) Italian director, producer, and stage designer. In 1946 he joined Luchino Visconti’s Morelli-Stoppa Co. as an actor and stage director. After serving as Visconti’s assistant on films such as La terra trema (1948), he turned to stage design. His major operatic produc¬ tions, noted for their visual richness, began with LTtaliana in Algeri (1952-53) and include Lucia di Lammermoor (1959) and La Boheme (1963, 1981), among many others; he directed films of La traviata (1983) and Otello (1986). His other films include The Taming of the Shrew (1967), Romeo and Juliet (1968), Endless Love (1981), Jane Eyre (1996), and Tea with Mussolini (1999).

Zeiss Vtsls,\ English \'zls\, Carl (b. Sept. 11, 1816, Weimar, Thuring- ian States—d. Dec. 3, 1888, Jena) German industrialist. In 1846 Zeiss opened a workshop for producing microscopes and other optical instru¬ ments. He later formed a partnership with the physicist and mathemati¬ cian Ernst Abbe (1840-1905). The chemist Otto Schott developed about 100 new kinds of optical glass and numerous types of heat-resistant glass for the company. After Zeiss’s death, Abbe donated the firm and his share in the glassworks to the Carl Zeiss Foundation; in 1923 Schott added his share in the glassworks.

Zemes mate \'ze-mes-'ma-te\ In Baltic religion, the female aspect of nature and the source of all life. Together with Dievs, she stimulates and protects the power of life. Libations of beer were offered to her at the opening of every festival, and bread, ale, and herbs were buried in the ground, thrown into rivers and lakes, or tied to trees in her honour. Her

various functions were eventually assumed by demigoddesses of forests, fields, stones, animals, water, and, in the Christian era, by the Virgin Mary.

zemstvo Vzemst-v3\ plural zemstvos Rural elected assembly in the Russian Empire. Established by Tsar Alexander II in 1864 to provide social and economic services, the zemstvos became a liberal influence in impe¬ rial Russia. The assemblies, formed at the district and province levels, were composed of delegates representing the landed proprietors and the peasant village communes. They expanded education, improved roads, and provided health care. From the 1890s they agitated for constitutional reform, and they stimulated activity in the Russian Revolutions of 1905 and 1917 (see Russian Revolution of 1905; Russian Revolution of 1917). They were abolished after the Bolsheviks came to power. The term zem¬ stvo also refers to a 16th-century institution for tax collection.

Zen Important school of Buddhism that claims to transmit the experience of enlightenment achieved by the Buddha Gautama. Arising as Chan in China in the 6th century (introduced by Bodhidharma), it divided into two schools, the Southern school, which believed in sudden enlightenment, and the Northern school, which believed in gradual enlightenment. By the 8th century only the Northern school survived. Zen developed fully in Japan by the 12th century and had a significant following in the West by the later 20th century. Zen teaches that the potential to achieve enlight¬ enment is inherent in everyone but lies dormant because of ignorance. It is best awakened not by the study of scripture, the practice of good deeds, rites and ceremonies, or worship of images, but by breaking through the boundaries of mundane logical thought. Methods employed vary among different schools and may emphasize the practice of zazen (in the Soto school), the use of koans (in the Rinzai school), or the continual invoca¬ tion of Amida (in the Obaku school; see Amitabha).

Zend-Avesta See Avesta

Zeng Guofan or Tseng Kuo-fan Vdzon-'gwo-'fanN (b. Nov. 26, 1811, Xiangxiang, Hunan province, China—d. March 12, 1872, Nanjing) Chinese military leader most responsible for suppressing the Taping Rebel¬ lion, thus staving off the collapse of the Qing dynasty. Having passed the highest examinations in the Chinese examination system, Zeng entered the Hanun Academy and worked successfully as a bureaucrat. In 1852 he was asked to help combat the Taiping rebels, who had reached the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley and were threatening the dynasty’s survival. The imperial troops being weak, Zeng and other members of the scholar- gentry organized local militias. His army seized the rebels’ supply areas along the upper Yangtze and besieged and captured their capital, Nanjing, in 1864. In 1865 he was called on to help suppress the Nian Rebellion; a year later he asked that Li Hongzhang take over the campaign. See also Zhang Zhidong.

Zenger, John Peter (b. 1697, Germany—d. July 28, 1746, New York, N.Y.) German-born U.S. printer and journalist. He immigrated to New York at age 13 and was indentured to a printer before starting his own printing business (1726). In 1733 he began publishing the New York Weekly Journal. Arrested for libel in 1734 for his attacks on the policies of the colonial governor, he was acquitted on the grounds that his charges were based on fact (a key consideration in libel cases since that time). It was the first important victory for freedom of the press in Britain’s North American colonies.

Zeno \'ze-no\ orig. Tarasicodissa (b. Isauria, Diocese of the East—d. April 9, ad 491) Eastern Roman emperor (474-491). A military leader, he married the daughter of Emperor Leo I (c. 466), and their son reigned briefly as Leo II (474). On the boy’s early death, Zeno became emperor. Obliged to flee to Isauria to escape a coup d’etat, he returned to Con¬ stantinople in 476. He made peace with the Vandals in Africa, put down a rebellion in Asia Minor (484), and persuaded the Ostrogoths to leave the Eastern Empire by making Theodoric king of Italy (489). Seeking to reconcile orthodox Christians and Monophysites, he caused a schism with Rome (484-519).

Zeno of Citium Vze- l no... , si-sh(e-)3m\ (b. c. 335, Citium, Cyprus—d. c. 263 bc, Athens) Greek philosopher, founder of Stoicism. He went to Athens c. 312 bc and attended lectures by the Cynics Crates of Thebes (fl. late 4th century bc) and Stilpon of Megara (c. 380-300 bc), as well as lectures at the Academy. He began to teach in the Stoa Poikile (“Painted Colonnade”), whence the name of his philosophy. His system included logic, epistemology, physics, and ethics. He taught that happiness lies in conforming the will to the divine reason, which governs the universe. In

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2106 I Zeno of Elea ► Zeuxis

logic and epistemology he was influenced by Antisthenes (c. 445-365 bc) and Diodorus Cronus (fl. 4th century bc), in physics by Heracleitus. Only fragmentary quotations from his many treatises have survived.

Zeno of Elea \'e-le-o\ (b. c. 495—d. c. 430 bc) Greek philosopher and mathematician. He was called by Aristotle the inventor of dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes (see paradoxes of Zeno). As a pupil and friend of Parmenides, he took it upon himself to reply to those who asserted that his master’s doctrine of “the one” (i.e., indivisible reality) was incon¬ sistent (see monism); he tried to show that the assumption of the existence of “the many” (i.e., a plurality of things in time and space) carried with it more serious inconsistencies.

Zenobia \z9-'no-be-3\ in full Sepfimia Zenobia (d. ad after 274) Queen of the Roman colony of Palmyra (267/268-272). Her hus¬ band, a Roman client ruler of Palmyra, was assassinated after recapturing several of Rome’s east¬ ern provinces from the Persians. She became her son’s regent but called herself queen. In 269 she seized Egypt and much of Asia Minor and declared her independence from Rome. Aurelian defeated her armies and besieged Palmyra; she and her son were captured and taken to Rome (272), where she was paraded in Aurelian’s triumph.

zeolite Vze-o-.lflA Any member of a family of hydrated aluminosilicate minerals that have a framework structure enclosing interconnected cavities occupied by large metal cat¬ ions (positively charged ions)— generally sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and barium— and water molecules. The ease of movement of ions and water within the framework allows reversible dehy¬ dration and cation exchange, properties that are exploited in water soft¬ eners and molecular sieves for pollution control, among other uses.

zeolitic facies y.ze-o-'li-tik-'fa-shezV One of the major divisions of the mineral facies classification of metamorphic rocks, encompassing rocks that formed at the lowest temperatures and pressures associated with regional metamorphism. Typical minerals in these facies include the zeolites, albite, and quartz.

Zephaniah (fl. 7th century bc) One of the 12 Minor Prophets of the Hebrew scriptures, traditional author of the book of Zephaniah. (The work is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) He prophesied in the reign of JosiAH, denouncing the worship of foreign gods, which suggests that he preached before the reforms instituted by Josiah. His dominant theme is the coming “day of the Lord,” a time of divine judg¬ ment for Judah’s sins.

zeppelin Rigid airship of a type designed by the German builder Fer¬ dinand, Graf (count) von Zeppelin (1838-1917). It was a cigar-shaped, trussed, and covered frame supported by internal gas cells, below which hung two external cars with an engine geared to two propellers. The first zeppelin flew in 1900. In World War I zeppelins were used as bombers by Germany. In 1928 the Graf Zeppelin inaugurated transatlantic flight service; it had completed 590 flights by 1937, when the Hindenburg disas¬ ter halted such flights.

zero Number and numeral of critical importance in mathematics. Zero is known as the additive identity because adding it to any number does not change the number’s identity, or value. The product of zero and any number is zero; for most number systems the converse is true—that is, if the prod¬ uct of two numbers is zero, at least one of them must equal zero. The latter property is fundamental to the solution of nearly every problem in math¬ ematics. Division by zero is undefined; efforts to deal with such divisions led to calculus. Various punctuation marks were first used in Mesopotamia beginning about 700 bc to indicate an empty space in positional notation, but never at the end of a number—the difference between, say, 78 and 780 had to be understood from the context. Ptolemy first used 0, or the Greek

letter omicron “o,” as an empty placeholder, including at the end of a num¬ ber, to express data in the Babylonian sexagesimal system in his astronomi¬ cal treatise Almagest (c. 130 ad). The Hindu-Arabic numerals and treatment of zero as a number developed between the 6th and 9th centuries in India. Zero soon followed trade routes to China, the Islamic world, and Europe.

Zero in full Mitsubishi A6M Zero Japanese fighter aircraft of World War II. A single-seat, low-wing monoplane made by Mitsubishi, it was introduced in 1940, the 2,600th anniversary of the crowning of Japan’s legendary first emperor, Jimmu, and named for the “zero-year” celebration. It had a top speed of 350 mph (565 kph) at nearly 20,000 ft (6,000 m). When it first appeared, it could outmaneuver every plane it encountered; Allied fighters could not defeat it until 1943. Many Zeros became kami¬ kaze craft in the war’s closing months.

zero-point energy Vibrational energy retained by molecules even at a temperature of absolute zero. Since temperature is a measure of the intensity of molecular motion, molecules would be expected to come to rest at absolute zero. However, if molecular motion were to cease alto¬ gether, the atoms would each have a precisely known location and veloc¬ ity (zero), and the uncertainty principle states that this cannot occur, since precise values of both position and velocity of an object cannot be known simultaneously. Thus, even molecules at absolute zero must have some zero-point energy.

Zeroual \zer-'wal\, Liamine (b. July 3, 1941, Batna, Alg.) President of Algeria (1994-99). After a military education, he rose through the ranks to become chief of land forces in 1989 and defense minister in 1993. In 1994 he was appointed transitional president by the military-dominated High Council of State, which had taken over the government after elec¬ tions were canceled in 1992 and Pres. Mohamed Boudiaf was assassinated. Elected for a full term in 1995, he was replaced in 1999 by Abdelaziz Bouteflika.

Zetkin Vtset-konV Clara orig. Clara Eissner (b. July 5, 1857, Wied- erau, Saxony—d. June 20, 1933, Arkhangelskoye, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Ger¬ man communist leader. She joined the Social Democratic Party in 1881, and she later married a Russian revolutionary exile, Ossip Zetkin (1848— 89). From 1892 she edited the Socialist women’s newspaper Die Gleich- heit (“Equality”) in Stuttgart. A friend of Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, Zetkin was a cofounder of the Spartacists (1916) and later joined the new Communist Party of Germany (1919). In 1921 she was elected to the presidium of the Third International (see Comintern). Her influence waned after Lenin’s death in 1924.

Zeus \'ziis\ In Greek religion, the chief deity of the pantheon, a sky and weather god. His Roman counterpart was Jupiter. Zeus was regarded as the bearer of thunder and lightning, rain, and winds, and his traditional weapon was the thunderbolt. The son of Cronus and Rhea, he was fated to dethrone his father. He divided dominion over the world with his brothers Poseidon and Hades. As ruler of heaven, Zeus led the gods to vic¬ tory against the Titans. From his home atop Mount Olympus, he dis¬ pensed justice and served as protec¬ tor. Known for his amorousness—a source of perpetual discord with his wife, Hera —he had many love affairs with mortal and immortal women, giving rise to numerous off¬ spring, including Apollo, Ares, Arte¬ mis, Athena, Dionysus, Helen,

Hephaestus, and Persephone. In art he was represented as a bearded, dignified, and mature man.

Zeuxis Vziik-S3s\ (fl. late 5th century-early 4th century bc, Heraclea, Magna Graecia) Greek painter. Though none of his work survives, his style and subject matter were recorded by ancient writers. He advanced the trend toward illusionism through the use of shadow to produce a rudi¬ mentary form of chiaroscuro. Apparently he was a panel painter rather than a wall painter. He preferred small compositions, often a single fig¬ ure; his subjects were gods and heroes and such genre figures as an old woman, an athlete, and a still life.

Zenobia, portrait bust; in the Vatican Museum, Rome

ANDERSON-GIRAUDON FROM ART RESOURCE

Zeus hurling a thunderbolt, bronze statuette from Dodona, Greece, early 5th century bc; in the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Germany

COURTESY OF THE STAATLICHE MUSEEN ZU BERUN, ANTIKENABTEILUNG

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Zhang Daoling ► Zheng He I 2107

Zhang Daoling or Chang Tao-ling Vjaq-'dau-'liqV (b. ad 34?, Pei, Jiangsu province, China—d. 156?, Hanzhong) Founder and first patriarch of organized religious Daoism. Zhang composed a Daoist work that attracted many followers among Chinese and indigenous groups in Sichuan. Like contemporary Daoists, he promised longevity and physical immortality, but, unlike others, he emphasized the importance of religious organization. He founded the Five Pecks of Rice movement. Zhang, his son, and his grandson are known as the Three Zhangs. While the Daodejing was the basic text, Zhang’s Xiang’er commentary interpreted it to suit the organization’s needs.

Zhang Daqian or Chang Ta-ch'ien (b. May 10, 1899, Neijiang, Sichuan province, China—d. April 2, 1983, Taipei, Taiwan) Chinese painter and collector. As a young man, he meticulously studied and cop¬ ied the works of ancient masters; he gained notoriety in Shanghai for his forgeries. Zhang extended his career to the north in the late 1920s, when he became active in the cultural circles of Beijing. He began to collabo¬ rate with the well-known Beijing painter Pu Xinyu, and together they became known as “South Zhang and North Pu.” In 1940 Zhang led a group of artists to the caves of Mogao and Yulin for the purpose of copy¬ ing their Buddhist wall paintings. The group completed over 200 paint¬ ings, and the experience left Zhang with a repository of religious imagery. During this period he became particularly known for his lotus paintings, inspired by works from the Tang-Song era. In reaction to the political cli¬ mate, Zhang left China in the early 1950s and traveled throughout the world. He developed eye problems in the late 1950s, and, as his eyesight deteriorated, he developed his mature splashed-colour ( pocai ) style. His work in this style fetched the highest market prices for contemporary Chinese paintings at international auctions of the time.

Zhang Juzheng Chang Chu-cheng Vjaq-'jii-'joqX (b. 1525, Jiang- ling, Hubei province, China—d. 1582, Beijing) Powerful Chinese minis¬ ter of the Ming dynasty under the Longqing and Wanli emperors. His benevolent rule and strong foreign and economic policies are considered to have brought the Ming dynasty to its peak. He is credited with cen¬ tralizing government, limiting special privileges, and reclaiming tax- exempt land.

Zhang Yimou Vjaq-'ye-'moV (b. Nov. 14, 1950, Xi’an, China) Chinese film director. He began his film career as a cinematographer, and his work for Chen Kaige’s The Yellow Earth (1983) helped launch the “Fifth Gen¬ eration,” filmmakers who brought back sensuality and emotion to Chi¬ nese movies. Zhang made his directorial debut with Red Sorghum (1987), which starred Gong Li in the first of her acclaimed roles. Noted for his technical mastery, he also directed films such as Ju Dou (1990), Raise the Red Lantern (1991), The Story of Qiu Ju (1992), To Live (1994), and Hero

( 2002 ).

Zhang Zai or Chang Tsai Yjaq-'dzA (b. 1020, Chang’an, China—d. 1077, China) Realist philosopher of the Song dynasty. The son of a mag¬ istrate, he studied Buddhism and Daoism before being inspired by the Confucian classics. In his Cheng-meng , he declared the universe a unity with myriad aspects and all existence an eternal integration and disinte¬ gration. Ren (humaneness) is the basic virtue, and morality consists in doing one’s duty as a member of society and of the universe.

Zhang Zhidong or Chang Chih-tung Yjaq-jir-'d6q\ (b. Sept. 2, 1837, Xingyi, Guizhou province, China—d. Oct. 4, 1909) Chinese clas¬ sicist and one of the foremost reformers of his time. From 1862 to 1882 he was a scholar and educational director; from 1882 to 1907 he rose from a provincial to a national leader. He supported the dowager empress Cixi, who in turn favoured him with many promotions. Concerned with reju¬ venating China, he searched for a way for China to survive in the mod¬ ern world that could accommodate Western knowledge but preserve traditional ways. His attempt to launch China’s first iron-and-steel works failed, but he later built a railway that extended from Hankou to near Beijing, and he founded a mint, tanneries, tile and silk factories, and paper, cotton, and wool mills. In response to China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, Zhang turned his attention to education, encouraging study abroad for Chinese students, establishment of a school system, translation of Western and Japanese books, and acquisition of knowledge from foreign newspapers. He also urged that civil service examinations be abolished, which occurred in 1905. See also Zeng Guofan.

Zhang Zuolin or Chang Tso-lin Vjaq-dzo-'linX (b. March 19, 1875, Haicheng, Liaoning province, China—d. June 4, 1928, Shengyang, Lia¬ oning) Chinese warlord. After fighting in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-

95), Zhang organized a self-defense militia in his native district. By 1912 he was in command of a division, and he set out to dominate Manchuria (northeastern China), relying on the tacit support of the Japanese, to whom he granted concessions in Manchuria. In 1918 he became inspector gen¬ eral of Manchuria’s three provinces, which he ruled as a virtually autono¬ mous state. In 1920 he pushed south into China proper and in 1924 took Beijing, but his troops had to abandon their position in the face of Chiang Kai-shek’s 1927 Northern Expedition. Zhang was killed by a bomb planted by Japanese extremists who hoped his death would provoke the Japanese into occupying Manchuria.

Zhao Youqin (b. July 26, 1271, Poyang, China—d. c. 1335, Longyou Mountains, Zhejiang province) Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and Daoist philosopher. He was one of the patriarchs of the northern branch of the Quanzhen (“Complete Perfection”) sect of Daoism. His astronomi¬ cal treatise Gexiang xinshu (“New Writing on the Symbol of Alteration”) presents his cosmological theory featuring a flat Earth inside a spherical Heaven, his explanation of the lunar and solar eclipses, and his experi¬ ments with a camera obscura. The book also describes his methods of remote surveying with gnomons to measure the distance from the Earth to the Sun, the Moon, and the stars, as well as his procedure for calcu¬ lating the value of n. His Xian Fo tongyuan (“On the Common Origins of [the Teachings of] Transcendentals and Buddhas”) is devoted to the “Inner Alchemy,” an esoteric discipline focusing on the attainment of immortality via respiratory and meditative practices.

Zhdanov \'shta-n6f\, Andrey (Aleksandrovich) (b. Feb. 26, 1896, Mariupol, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Aug. 31, 1948, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet politician. He joined the Bolsheviks in 1915 and became a leading member of the Politburo (1939) and Communist Party secretary in Leningrad. A close associate of Joseph Stalin, he formulated the extreme anti-Western cultural policy known as “Zhdanovism” (1946), which imposed strict government control on art and literature and soon affected all intellectual activity in the Soviet Union. In 1947 he founded the propaganda bureau Cominform.

Zhejiang Vjo-'jyaqN or Che-chiang conventional Chekiang Prov¬ ince (pop., 2000 est.: 46,770,000), eastern China. With an area of 39,300 sq mi (101,800 sq km), it is bounded by the China Sea, Shanghai munici¬ pality, and Fujian, Jiangxi, Anhui, and Jiangsu provinces; its capital is Hang¬ zhou. It is one of China’s smallest provinces and one of the most densely populated. Its northern part lies just south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) delta. Occupying parts of various kingdoms until the 13th century ad, it was divided in the 1270s into eastern and western regions. Foreign penetration began in the 1840s. After the Chinese revolution (1911-12), it became a power base for the Nationalist Party of Chiang Kai-shek, who was born in the province. Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, it was little affected by the 1946-49 civil war. In addition to its agri¬ cultural importance, it has a thriving fishing industry. Its hydroelectric power plants have spurred more growth.

Zheng Chenggong or Cheng Ch'eng-kung Vjoq-'choq-'guqN or Koxinga \kak-'siq-3\ (b. Aug. 28, 1624, Hirado, Japan—d. June 23, 1662, Taiwan) Chinese military leader of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. After the Ming dynasty fell to the Manchu, Zheng refused Manchu offers of rank and power and launched a military campaign against the new dynasty in 1659, taking a large force from his base in Fujian province up the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Initial success turned into failure, but, undaunted, Zheng took Taiwan from the Dutch in 1662 to use as a secure rear base area. Further glory was cut short by his death later that year. He became a popular deity and cultural hero to the Chi¬ nese on Taiwan, and even the Qing court honoured him as a paragon of loyalty. In Japan the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon celebrated him on the stage (Zheng had a Japanese mother), and in the 20th century both Chinese communists and Nationalists embraced him as a national hero.

Zheng He or Cheng Ho Vjoq-'heV orig. Ma Sanbao (b. c. 1371, Kunyang, Yunnan province, China—d. April 1433, Calicut, India) Eunuch admiral and diplomat who helped extend Chinese maritime and commer¬ cial influence throughout the region bordering on the Indian Ocean.The Yongle emperor named Zheng commander in chief of missions to the “Western Oceans.” He first set sail in 1405 and on this mission visited Champa (southern Vietnam), Siam (Thailand), Malacca, and Java, trav¬ eled through the Indian Ocean as far as Sri Lanka, and returned to China in 1407. Subsequent voyages took him to Arabia, the eastern coast of Africa, Southeast Asia, and India. Chinese emigration increased in the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2108 I Zhengzhou ► ZhuXi

wake of these missions, resulting in Chinese colonization of Southeast Asia and consequent tributary trade that lasted into the 19th century.

Zhengzhou Yjaq-'joV or Cheng-chou formerly (1913^49) Zhengxian Yjoq-'shyenX or Cheng-hsien City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,465,069), capital of Henan province, east-central China. Located south of the Huang He (Yellow River), it is an important rail centre. There were Neolithic settlements in the area, and the Shang Bronze Age culture (fl. c. 1500 bc) was centred there on a walled city. Zhou-dynasty tombs have also been discovered. The city was first called Zhengzhou in ad 605, and it has been known by that name virtually ever since. It achieved its great¬ est importance in the 6th-12th centuries, when it was the terminus of a canal that joined the Huang to the north. In the early 20th century it became a rail junction and a regional agricultural centre. Since 1950 its industrial base has greatly expanded, and its population has grown con¬ siderably.

Zhivkov \ , zhiv-,kof\ / Todor (Khristov) (b. Sept. 7, 1911, Pravets, near Botevgrad, Bulg.—d. Aug. 5, 1998, Sofia) Bulgarian politician. The son of poor peasants, he drifted to the Bulgarian capital of Sofia in his youth and, in the late 1920s, joined the Komsomol, the youth league of the outlawed Communist Party. During World War II he organized a resis¬ tance movement, and after the war, he held posts in the Soviet-sponsored government, including head of the People’s Militia. He became first sec¬ retary of the Bulgarian Communist Party in 1954, the youngest leader in the Soviet bloc, then served as premier (1962-71) and president (1971— 89). He hewed closely to the Soviet line but encouraged industrialization and improved the country’s living standard. When democratization reached Bulgaria, Zhivkov resigned (1989). Convicted of embezzlement, he was sentenced to house arrest in 1992.

Zhiyi or Chih-i \'jir-'e\ (b. 538, Hunan province, China—d. 597, Mount Tiantai, Zhejiang province) Chinese Buddhist monk who founded the eclectic Tiantai sect. Orphaned at age 17, he studied with the Buddhist master Huisi for seven years. He was associated with the imperial gov¬ ernments of the Chen dynasty in southern China and the Sui dynasty, which reunified China. He reconciled the various strains of Buddhism by regard¬ ing all Buddhist doctrines as true and present in the mind of the enlight¬ ened Buddha, who unfolded his teachings in periods to accommodate his listeners’ capacities. He considered the Lotus Sutra the highest teaching and helped establish it as the most popular scripture in East Asia.

Zhongyong or Chung yung \'juq-'yuq\ or Doctrine of the Mean One of four ancient Confucian texts known as the Four Books, published together in 1190 by Zhu Xi. Its metaphysics had interested Bud¬ dhists and earlier Neo-Confucianists. Zhu Xi attributes the work to Con¬ fucius’ grandson Zi Si, though it was actually part of Liji (“Book of Rites”), one of the Five Classics. Zhongyong expresses an ideal of mod¬ eration, rectitude, and lack of prejudice that should encompass virtually every relationship and activity in life.

Zhou dynasty or Chou \'jo\ dynasty (1046-256 bc) Ancient Chi¬ nese dynasty that gave China its historically identifying political and cul¬ tural characteristics. The period before 771 bc is known as the Western Zhou; the period from 771 bc on is called the Eastern Zhou and is further divided into the Spring and Autumn period (770-476) and the Warring States period (475-221). During the Zhou dynasty, iron, ox-drawn plows, cross¬ bows, and horseback riding were introduced; large-scale irrigation projects were instituted; the Chinese writing system was further developed; and the great Chinese philosophers of antiquity, including Confucius, Mencius, and Zhuangzi, lived and taught. Pottery and bronzework expanded on the tra¬ ditions of the earlier Shang dynasty, as did work in jade and lacquer.

Zhou Enlai or Chou En-lai Vjo-'en-'llX (b. March 5, 1898, Huai’an, Jiangsu province, China—d. Jan. 8, 1976, Beijing) Chinese communist leader, premier from the founding of the People’s Republic of China until his death (1949-76). Zhou became a communist during his studies abroad in France and was an organizer for the Chinese Communist Party in Europe. Like other communists, he worked with the Nationalists in the early 1920s and escaped capture when Chiang Kai-shek purged his former allies in 1927. He joined Zhu De and Mao Zedong in Jiangxi province and became political commissar of the Red Army. In the 1930s he negotiated a tactical alliance with the Nationalists to resist Japanese aggression. When the communists prevailed over the Nationalists in 1949, Zhou became premier of the new People’s Republic of China. During the Cultural Revolution, Zhou helped restrain extremists; as the revolution waned in the early 1970s, he sought to restore Deng Xiaoping and other moderates to power. He is credited with

arranging the historic meeting between U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon and Mao that paved the way for U.S. recognition of the communist government.

Zhougong or Chou-kung \'jo-'guq\ (fl. 11th century bc, China) Political figure who solidified the power of the Zhou dynasty. On the death of his brother Wuwang, founder of the Zhou, he resisted the temptation to seize the throne and chose instead to serve as counselor to his nephew, the second Zhou ruler. When Zhougong stepped down after seven years, the Zhou political and social system had been stabilized. Confucius so admired Zhougong’s wisdom and virtue as a minister, that he proffered him as a model for rulers of his own time to emulate.

Zhoukoudian Vjo-kod-yonX or Chou-k'ou-tien Archaeological site some 26 mi (42 km) southwest of Beijing, China, where fossil remains of the extinct hominin Homo erectus have been found. So-called Peking man was identified as a new fossil human by Canadian anthropologist Davidson Black in 1927 and variously classified as Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus before being assigned to H. erectus. Partial remains of about 40 individuals along with more than 100,000 artifacts have been uncov¬ ered, making Zhoukoudian one of the most important H. erectus sites in the world. Its strata date to 550,000-230,000 years ago. It was named a World Heritage site in 1987.

Zhu De or Chu Teh Vjii -'de\ (b. Dec. 1, 1886, Yilong, Sichuan prov¬ ince, China—d. July 6, 1976, Beijing) Founder of the Chinese commu¬ nist force that became the People's Liberation Army. Educated at Yunnan Military Academy, Zhu began his military career in the armies of war¬ lords in southern China. He became a communist in the early 1920s but hid his affiliation to become an officer in the Nationalist army. In 1927 he took part in the communist-led Nanchang Uprising, an event celebrated annually in China as the birth of the People’s Liberation Army. When the uprising was defeated, Zhu led his troops south to join Mao Zedong’s small guerrilla forces. He became commander in chief of the communist forces, a position he held through World War II and the civil war with the Nationalists, not stepping down until 1954. With Mao, Zhu is credited with elevating guerrilla warfare to a major strategic concept.

Zhu Rongji Vjii-roq-'jeXorChu Jung-chi (b. Oct. 23,1928, Changsha, Hunan province, China) Premier of the State Council of China (1998— 2003). In the 1950s he was denounced as a rightist, and he was purged again in the 1970s, but, once his Communist Party membership was restored, he rose rapidly. In 1988 he became mayor of Shanghai and in 1991 a deputy premier of the State Council. He was governor of the People’s Bank of China (1993-95) and became director of the Institute for Economic Man¬ agement at Qinghua University in 1994. He was appointed premier in 1998. In the face of the Asian economic crisis at the end of the 1990s, he worked to drastically cut back the size of the government bureaucracy. Zhu, whose economic policies have been both praised and criticized, stepped down as premier in 2003 and was replaced by Wen Jiabao.

Zhu Shijie (fl. 1300, China) Chinese mathematician who stood at the pinnacle of traditional Chinese mathematics. Zhu is known for having unified the southern and northern Chinese mathematical traditions. His fame rests on two publications, Suanxue qimeng (1299; “Introduction to Mathematical Science”) and Siyuan yujian (1303; “Precious Mirror of Four Elements”). The former is an introductory mathematics textbook; following the southern Chinese tradition, it presents many rules and prob¬ lems in the form of verses to facilitate their memorization. It played a central role in the development of the xvasan (“Japanese calculation”) tra¬ dition. “Precious Mirror” corresponds to the final stage in the generali¬ zation of the northern Chinese technique of tian yuan (“method of the celestial unknown”), a kind of algebraic computation performed with counting rods to solve problems.

Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi \'ju-'she\ (b. Oct. 18, 1130, Yu-hsi, Fukien prov¬ ince, China—d. April 23, 1200, China) Chinese philosopher and propo¬ nent of Neo-Confucianism. The son of a minor government official, he was educated in the Confucian tradition and entered government service. Inter¬ ested in history, he revised Sima Guang’s famous history so that it would illustrate moral principles in government. In 1189 he began a commen¬ tary on the Daxue; he continued working on the Daxue all his life. Philo¬ sophically, his thought incorporated the ideas of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073), and Zhang Zai, whose works he compiled. His commentaries on the Four Books, notably on the Lunyu ( Analects ) of Confucius and on Mencius (both 1177), were enormously influential. His philosophy emphasized logic, consistency, observance of classical author¬ ity, and the value of inquiry.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

ZhuYuanzhang ► Zimbabwe I 2109

Zhu Yuanzhang See Hongwu emperor

Zhuangzi or Chuang-tzu Vjwaq-'dziA (b. c. 369, Meng, China—d. 286 bce) Most significant early Chinese interpreter of Daoism and the pur¬ ported author of the Daoist classic that bears his name. A minor official and a contemporary of Mencius, he drew on the sayings of Laozi but took a broader perspective. He taught that enlightenment comes from the real¬ ization that everything is one, the DAO, but that the dao has no limitations or demarcations and whatever can be known or said of the dao is not the dao. He held that things should be allowed to follow their own course and that no situation should be valued over any other.

Zhuge Liang or Chu-ko Liang Vju-'go-le-'aqX (b. ad 181, Yangdu, Shandong province, China—d. August 234, Wuzhangyuan, Shaanxi prov¬ ince, China) Celebrated adviser to Liu Bei, founder of the Shu-Han dynasty of the Six Dynasties period. Liu was so impressed with Zhuge that on his deathbed he urged Zhuge to take the throne himself if his own son proved incapable. A genius in mechanics and mathematics, Zhuge is cred¬ ited with inventing a bow for shooting several arrows at once and with perfecting the Eight Dispositions, a series of military tactics. Supernatu¬ ral powers were often ascribed to him, and he is a favourite character in Chinese plays and stories, notably Sanguozhi yanyi {Romance of the Three Kingdoms). In 1724 he was made a Confucian saint.

Zhukov \'zhii- I k6f\ / Georgy (Konstantinovich) (b. Dec. 1, 1896, Kaluga province, Russia—d. June 18, 1974, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet army commander in World War II. He joined the Red Army in the Russian Civil War and rose to become head of Soviet forces in Manchuria (1938-39). In World War II he was chief of staff of the Red Army and organized the defense of Leningrad and Moscow (1941). He directed the offensive that broke the siege in the Battle of Stalingrad (1943) and was named a marshal of the Soviet Union. After helping win the Battle of Kursk, he directed the Soviet offensive through Belorussia (now Belarus) and commanded the final assault on Berlin (1945). After the war Zhu¬ kov’s great popularity caused him to be regarded as a potential threat by Joseph Staun, who assigned him to obscure regional commands. After Sta¬ lin’s death he was appointed minister of defense (1955) and attempted to make the army more autonomous, but opposition from Nikita Khrushchev caused his dismissal in 1957. He remained in relative obscurity until Khrushchev fell from power in 1964, and he was subsequently awarded the Order of Lenin (1966).

Zia (ur-Rahman), Begum Khaleda orig. Khaleda Majum-

dar (b. Aug. 15, 1945, Dinajpur district, India) Politician who served as prime minister of Bangladesh. In 1959 she married Zia ur-Rahman, a leader in the fight for the independence of Bangladesh, then part of India. Her husband became president of Bangladesh in 1977, and after his assas¬ sination in 1981 she became politically active. In 1984 she assumed the leadership of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. Zia was arrested repeat¬ edly during the dictatorship of Hossain Mohammad Ershad in the 1980s, but in 1991 she led the opposition to victory and became prime minister. Her overwhelming reelection victory in February 1996 was tainted by an opposition-led boycott of the voting, and, after a wave of strikes and pro¬ tests, she resigned the following month. In 2001 Zia was again elected prime minister.

Zia-ul-Haq Vze-s-ol-'hakX, Mohammad (b. Aug. 12, 1924, Jullun- dur, Punjab, India—d. Aug. 17, 1988, near Bahawalpur, Pak.) President of Pakistan (1978-88). He served with the British in Southeast Asia at the end of World War II; after Pakistan’s independence, he held various staff and command appointments for 19 years. He became a major general in 1972 and army chief of staff in 1976. The following year he seized power from Zulfikar Au Bhutto, and in 1978 he assumed the presidency. After having the popular Bhutto executed in 1979, he tightened his grip on the government, suspending political parties and declaring martial law, and he worked for the Islamization of Pakistan’s political and cultural life. He died in an airplane crash.

Ziegfeld Vzig-.feld, 'zeg-,feld\, Florenz (b. March 21, 1869, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. July 22, 1932, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. theatrical producer. He worked as a publicist for Sandow the strongman before turning to the¬ atrical management in 1896. His press releases promoting the French beauty Anna Held set a pattern of star-making publicity. In 1907 in New York City he produced the first of his Ziegfeld Follies, revues that com¬ bined seminudity, pageantry, and comedy in a formula that he repeated successfully for 23 years. Under the slogan “Glorifying the American

Girl,” he made the revue an extravagant spectacle and developed stars such as Will Rogers and Fanny Brice. He also produced the hit musical Show Boat (1927).

Ziegler \'tse-gbr\, Karl (b. Nov. 26, 1898, Helsa, near Kassel, Ger.—d. Aug. 12, 1973, Miilheim, W.Ger.) German chemist. He held academic appointments at the Universities of Frankfurt am Main, Heidelberg, and Halle, and in 1943 he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm (later Max Planck) Institute. He was the first to explain the reactions involved in the synthesis of rubber (c. 1928). His most important work, in the 1950s, led to the discovery that certain catalysts permitted the fast polymerization of ethylene at atmospheric pressure to a linear polymer of high molecular weight having valuable plastic properties. His work formed the basis of nearly all later developments in the production of long-chain polymers of hydrocarbons from such olefins as ethylene and butadiene; the resulting products came into widespread use as plastics, fibres, rubbers, and films. He shared a 1963 Nobel Prize with Giulio Natta (1903-79).

ziggurat Vzi-g9-,rat\ Pyramidal, stepped temple tower characteristic of the major cities of Mesopotamia between 2200 and 500 bc. It was built with a core of mud brick and an exterior covered with baked brick. It had no internal chambers and was usually square or rectangular. Some 25 ziggu- rats are known, located in Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria. The best-preserved ziggurat is at Ur, and the largest is at Elam. The legendary Tower of Babel has been associated with the ziggurat of the great temple of Marduk in Babylon.

Zimbabwe \zim-'ba-bwa, zim-'ba-bwe\ officially Republic of Zim¬ babwe formerly Rhodesia Landlocked country, southern Africa. Area: 150,872 sq mi (390,757 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 12,161,000. Capital: Harare. The Shona make up about two-thirds of the population; most of the rest are Ndebele, Chewa, and people of European ancestry. Lan¬

guages: English (official); Bantu languages of the Shona and Ndebele are much more widely spoken. Religions: Christianity (other [mostly independent] Christians, Protestant, Roman Catholic), traditional beliefs. Currency: Zimbabwe dollar. A broad ridge running southwest- northeast, reaching elevations of 4,000-5,000 ft (1,200-1,500 m), domi¬ nates Zimbabwe’s landscape. The Zambezi River forms the country’s northwestern boundary and contains Victoria Falls as well as the Kariba Dam (completed 1959); Lake Kariba, created by the dam, covers some 2,000 sq mi (5,200 sq km). The Limpofo and Save river basins are in the southeast. Agricultural products, livestock, and mineral reserves, including gold, are all economically important. Zimbabwe is a republic with one leg¬ islative house; its head of state and government is the president. Remains of Stone Age cultures dating to 500,000 years ago have been found in the

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2110 I Zimbabwe ► Zionism

area. The first Bantu-speaking peoples reached it during the 5th— 1 Oth cen¬ turies ad, driving the San inhabitants into the desert. A second migration of Bantu speakers began c. 1830. During that period the British and Afrikan¬ ers moved up from the south, and the area came under the administration of the British South Africa Company (1889-1923). Called Southern Rhodesia (1911-64), it became a self-governing British colony in 1923. The colony united in 1953 with Nyasaland (Malawi) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) to form the Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The federation dissolved in 1963, and Southern Rhodesia reverted to its former colonial status. In 1965 it issued a unilateral declaration of independence considered illegal by the British government, which led to economic sanc¬ tions against it. The country, which proclaimed itself a republic in 1970, called itself Rhodesia from 1964 to 1979. In 1979 it instituted limited majority rule and changed its name to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. It was granted independence by Britain in 1980 and became Zimbabwe. A multiparty sys¬ tem was established in 1990. Since 2000 tension has increased between European farmers and government leaders as the government has pursued a program of confiscating farms.

Zimbabwe Fifteenth-century ruins, see Great Zimbabwe

Zimmermann Vtsi-msr-.manV Arthur (b. Oct. 5, 1864, Marg- grabowa, East Prussia—d. June 6, 1940, Berlin, Ger.) German diplomat. He became foreign minister of Germany in 1916 during World War I. With Germany’s decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, he planned to reduce the possible U.S. intervention in Europe by embroiling it in war with Mexico. On Jan. 16, 1917, he sent a coded telegram to the German ambassador in Mexico, proposing a German-Mexican alliance that would allow Mexico to “reconquer her lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.” It was intercepted and decoded by British naval intelligence, then published in the U.S. on March 1, causing public outrage. The “Zim¬ mermann telegram” became a key factor in the U.S. declaration of war against Germany on April 6. Zimmermann was forced to resign in 1917.

zinc Metallic chemical element, chemical symbol Zn, atomic number 30. Zinc is a bluish silver metal, ductile when very pure but brittle otherwise. It forms brass (with copper) and many other alloys. Its major use is in gal¬ vanizing iron, steel, and other metals. Zinc is an essential trace element, particularly in red blood cells; in snails, it corresponds to iron in the blood of vertebrates. Zinc oxide is used as a pigment, ultraviolet light absorber (to prevent sunburn), dietary supplement and seed treatment, and photo¬ conductor. Zinc’s many other compounds (in which it has valence 2 or, rarely, 1) are used in industrial and consumer applications, including as pesticides, pigments, mordants (see dye), fluxes, and wood preservatives.

zincblende See sphalerite

Zinder, Norton (David) (b. Nov. 7, 1928, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. biologist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. He discovered genetic transduction (the transfer of genes from one type of microorganism to another by an agent such as a bacteriophage) in Sal¬ monella bacteria. Using this transduction, later researchers were able to show that bacterial genes affecting certain physiological processes were grouped together in what are now known as operons. His experiments also led to the discovery of the first bacteriophage that contained RNA as its genetic material.

Zinkernagel Vtsiq-kor-.na-golA English Vziq-kor-.na-goU, Rolf M(artin) (b. Jan. 6, 1944, Basel, Switz.) Swiss immunologist and pathologist. He received his Ph.D. from the Australian National Univer¬ sity. Studying T cells in mice infected with a meningitis virus, he and Peter Doherty found that those from one infected mouse would destroy infected cells from another only if the mice belonged to the same genetic strain: no immune response occurs unless the T cells recognize two signals, those of the virus and those identifying the cell as “self.” In 1992 he became head of the University of Zurich’s Institute of Experimental Immunology. In 1996 he and Doherty shared a Nobel Prize.

Zinnemann Vzin-o-monV Fred (b. April 29, 1907, Vienna, Austria—d. March 14, 1997, London, Eng.) Austrian-born U.S. film director. After studying law in his native Vienna, he learned cinematog¬ raphy in Paris and worked in Berlin. In 1929 he moved to Hollywood, and in 1934 he codirected his first feature. The Wave, which was initially followed largely by documentaries and short subjects. His feature films, many of which focus on the crisis of moral courage, include The Search (1948), The Men (1950), the classic western High Noon (1952), From Here to Eternity (1953, Academy Award), Oklahoma! (1955), The Nun’s

Story (1959), A Man for All Seasons (1966, Academy Award), The Day of the Jackal (1973), and Julia (1977).

zinnia Any of about 22 species of herbaceous plants and shrubs that make up the genus Zinnia (composite family), native mainly to North America. Where native, they are perennial; elsewhere they are annual.

Zinnias have stiff, hairy stems and oval or lance-shaped leaves arranged opposite each other and often clasp¬ ing the stem. The numerous garden varieties grown for their showy, soli¬ tary flowers come from the species Z. elegans. Garden zinnias range from dwarf compact plants (less than 1 ft, or 30 cm, tall), with flowers 1 in. (2.5 cm) in diameter, to giant forms (up to 3 ft, or 1 m, tall), with flowers up to 6 in. (15 cm) across.

Zinovyev \zyi-'nof-yif\, Grigory (Yevseyevich) orig. Ovsel Gershon Aronov Radomyslsky (b. Sept. 23, 1883, Yelizavetgrad, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Aug. 25, 1936, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet politician. Born to lower middle-class Jewish parents, he received no formal education, but during travels abroad in 1902-05 he attended lectures on law at Bern University. An early activist with the Bolsheviks (1903), he became Vladimir Lenin’s close collaborator in exile (1909-17) and in the Russian Revolution of 1917, helping win public support for the Bolshevik regime. By 1921 he was head of the Petrograd (St. Petersburg) soviet and a member of the Politburo. He was chairman of the Comin¬ tern (1919-26) and helped Joseph Stalin oust Leon Trotsky. He was removed from power by Stalin in 1926. Although he was subsequently readmitted to the party, he never recovered his former prestige and was expelled again on two other occasions (1932 and 1934). In 1935 he was arrested for con¬ spiracy and sentenced to prison. The following year he was retried in the first of the purge trials, found guilty on the fabricated charge of forming a terrorist organization to assassinate various Soviet leaders, and executed. In 1988 the Soviet Supreme Court annulled the sentence posthumously.

Zinsser, Hans (b. Nov. 17,1878, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. 1940) U.S. bacteriologist and epidemiologist. He taught principally at the Columbia (1913—23) and Harvard (1923^10) medical schools. He isolated the bac¬ terium that causes the European type of typhus, developed the first anti¬ typhus vaccine, and, with colleagues, found a way to mass-produce it. He recognized that cases of mild typhus-like symptoms in lice-free persons are recurrences after a latent period (Brill-Zinsser disease). His best- known book. Rats, Lice and History (1935), recounts the effects of typhus on humankind (he believed disease had destroyed more civilizations than war) and efforts to eradicate it.

Zion Easternmost of the two hills of ancient Jerusalem, where David estab¬ lished his royal capital. In the Old Testament, the name Zion frequently refers to Jerusalem as a whole; it is overwhelmingly a poetic and pro¬ phetic designation. Mount Zion is the place where Yahweh (God) dwells and is the scene of his messianic salvation. The name came to mean the Jewish homeland, symbolic of Judaism or Jewish national aspirations, and thus was the source of the term Zionism. Though the name is rare in the New Testament, it has been frequently used in Christian literature and hymns as a designation for the heavenly city or for the earthly city of Christian faith and fraternity.

Zion National Park National park, southwestern Utah, U.S. It cov¬ ers an area of 229 sq mi (593 sq km); its principal feature is Zion Can¬ yon, which was named by the Mormons who discovered it in 1858. Part of the area was first set aside as the Mukuntuweap National Monument in 1909. Enlarged and renamed Zion National Monument in 1918, it was established as a national park in 1919. Zion Canyon was carved by the Virgin River and is about 15 mi (24 km) long and 0.5 mi (0.8 km) deep. Rocky domes dot the canyon walls, which contain an abundant fossil record. Excavation has yielded evidence that prehistoric peoples once inhabited the area.

Zionism VzI-o-.ni-zomV Jewish nationalism movement with the goal of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine. In the 16th—17th century, a number of “messiahs” tried to persuade the Jews to return to Palestine, but by the late 18th century interest had largely faded. Pogroms in Eastern Europe led

Zinnia elegans

KENNETH AND BRENDA FORMANEK/EB INC.

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Zionist church ► zodiacal light I 2111

to formation of the “Lovers of Zion,” which promoted the settlement of Jewish farmers and artisans in Palestine. In the face of persistent anti- Semitism, Theodor Herzl advocated a Jewish state in Palestine. He held the first Zionist Congress in Basel in 1897. After World War I the movement picked up momentum with the issuing of the Balfour Declaration. The Jew¬ ish population in Palestine increased from 90,000 in 1914 to 238,000 in 1933. The Arab population resisted Zionism, and the British tried unsuc¬ cessfully to reconcile Jewish and Arab demands. Zionism achieved its goal with the creation of Israel in 1948. See also Alliance Israelite Universelle, David Ben-Gurion, Hagana, Vladimir Jabotinsky, Irgun Zvai Leumi.

Zionist church Any of several prophet-healing groups in southern Africa that arose early in the 20th century from the fusion of African cul¬ ture with the Christian message brought by U.S. Protestant missionaries. Their common features include: origination from a mandate received by a prophet in a dream or vision; a chieflike leader who is succeeded by his son and who is occasionally regarded as a Messiah; healing through con¬ fession, repeated baptism, purification rites, and exorcism; revelation and power from the Holy Spirit through prophetic utterances and pentecostal phenomena; Africanized worship characterized by singing, dancing, clap¬ ping, and drumming; and repudiation of traditional magic, medicines, divination, and ancestor cults, though these are often replaced with Chris¬ tianized equivalents.

zip code System of postal-zone codes (zip stands for “zone improve¬ ment plan”) introduced in the U.S. in 1963 to improve mail delivery and exploit electronic reading and sorting capabilities. The original code, which corresponds to the postal codes used in most countries in the world, consists of five numbers. The first three identify the state and portion of the state, the last two a specific post office or zone. In 1983 a nine-digit code (created by adding a hyphen and four digits) was introduced to fur¬ ther speed delivery; the first two added digits specify a particular “sec¬ tor,” the last two an even smaller “segment” (e.g., one side of a city block, or a single floor in a large building).

zipper Device for binding the edges of an opening, as on a garment or a bag. A zipper consists of two strips of material with metal or plastic teeth along the edges, and a sliding piece that interlocks the teeth when moved in one direction and separates them again when moved in the opposite direc¬ tion. The idea of a slide fastener was first exhibited by Whitcomb L. Judson (died 1909) at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. The modern form of the zipper began to appear on clothing in the late 1920s.

zircon Silicate mineral, zirconium silicate, ZrSi0 4 , the principal source of zirconium. Zircon is widespread as an accessory mineral in acid igneous rocks; it also occurs in metamorphic rocks and, fairly often, in detrital deposits. It occurs in beach sands in many parts of the world, particularly Australia, India, Brazil, and Florida, and is a common heavy mineral in sedimentary rocks. Gem varieties occur in stream gravels and detrital deposits, particularly in Indochina and Sri Lanka, but also in Myanmar,

Australia, and New Zealand. Zircon forms an important part of the syenite of southern Norway and occurs in large crystals in Quebec.

zirconium Metallic chemical ele¬ ment, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Zr, atomic number 40. The metal is hard and brittle when impure, soft and ductile when highly purified. It is relatively abundant, occurring as zircon (also marketed as a natural gemstone) and baddeleyite. Highly transparent to neutrons, zirconium became important in the 1940s in nuclear energy applications such as fuel cladding. Other uses are in alloys, fireworks, and flashbulbs and as a scavenger for oxygen and other gases. Its compounds, in most of which it has valence 4, are important industrial materials. Zirconia (the oxide) is used in piezoelectric crystals (see piezoelectricity), high-frequency induction coils, coloured glazes and glasses, and heat-resistant fibres; zirconium carbonate is employed in preparations to treat the rash of poison ivy.

zither Plucked or struck stringed instrument with a shallow soundbox. The common Austrian zither is roughly rectangular and has 30-40 strings;

Zircon with quartz from Cheyenne Canyon, Colorado

COURTESY OF THE FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, CHICAGO; PHOTOGRAPH, JOHN H. GERARD-EB INC.

it is placed on the player’s knees or on a table. Several melody strings pass over a fretted fingerboard; the player’s left hand stops these strings, while the right hand plucks with the fingers and a thumb plectrum. Zither is also a generic term for stringed instruments, the strings of which are fastened across a frame that lacks any projecting neck or arms. The larger zither family thus includes instruments such as the Aeolian harp, autoharp, cimbalom, dulcimer, koto, and even the clavichord, harpsichord, and piano.

Zoan See Tanis

zodiac \'zo-de-,ak\ Belt around the heavens extending about 9° on either side of the ecliptic. The orbits of the Moon and the major planets (except Pluto) lie entirely within the zodiac. In astrology, each of 12 constella¬ tions along this circle is considered to occupy 1/12 (30°) of it. The posi¬ tions of the Sun and planets when a person is born and their motion through these constellations are said to exert influence on his or her life, though precession of the equinoxes has shifted the constellations eastward and the Sun no longer passes through them on the traditional dates: Aries, the ram (March 21-April 19); Taurus, the bull (April 20-May 20); Gemini, the twins (May 21-June 21); Cancer, the crab (June 22-July 22); Leo, the lion (July 23-August 22); Virgo, the virgin (August 23-September 22); Libra, the balance (September 23-October 23); Scorpius (see Scorpio), the scorpion (October 24-November 21); Sagittarius, the archer (November 22-December 21); Capricornus (see Capricorn), the goat (December 22-January 19); Aquarius, the water bearer (January 20-February 18); Pisces, the fish (February 19-March 20).

Zither made in Vienna

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The astrological images and symbols of the zodiac.

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zodiacal light \zo-'dI-9-k9l\ Band of very faint light in the night sky. It is thought to be sunlight reflected from interplanetary dust grains lying mostly in the plane of the zodiac, or ecliptic. Seen in the west after twi¬ light and in the east before dawn, it is most clearly visible in the tropics, where the ecliptic is approximately perpendicular to the horizon. In mid- northern latitudes it is best seen evenings in February and March and mornings in September and October (vice versa in midsouthern latitudes). The light can be followed visually to a point about 90° from the Sun. It continues to the region opposite the Sun, where a slight enhancement, the gegenschein, is visible.

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2112 I Zoe ► Zoroastrianism and Parsiism

Zoe \'zo-e\ (b. c. 978, Constantinople—d. 1050, Constantinople) Byz¬ antine empress. The daughter of Constantine VIII, she married Romanus III Argyrus in 1028. He died in 1034, perhaps poisoned by her, and she married her lover and chamberlain, who became Michael IV. After his death in 1041, his successor, Michael V, banished Zoe to a convent; she was recalled by public outcry, and Michael was deposed, blinded, and exiled (1042). Zoe and her sister became uneasy corulers, and she mar¬ ried Constantine IX Monomachus to secure her throne.

Zog I Albanian Ahmed Bey Zogu (b. Oct. 8, 1895, Castle Burgajet, Alb.—d. April 9, 1961, Suresnes, France) President (1925-28) and king of Albania (1928-39). After serving in the Austrian army in World War I, he became a leader of Albania’s reformist Popular Party. He held ministerial posts in the government (1920-24) and was elected head of the Albanian republic in 1925. Proclaimed king in 1928, he pursued a policy of close collaboration with Italy. Unable to resist Benito Mussolini’s increasing con¬ trol of the country’s finances and army, he was forced into exile when Italy invaded and made Albania a protectorate (1939). After World War II Alba¬ nia became a communist republic, and Zog formally abdicated in 1946.

Zola Vzo-lo,\ French \zo-'la\, Emile (-Edouard-Charles- Antoine) (b. April 2, 1840, Paris, France—d. Sept. 28, 1902, Paris) French novelist and critic. Raised in straitened circumstances, Zola worked at a Paris publishing house for several years during the 1860s while estab¬ lishing himself as a writer. In the gruesome novel Therese Raquin (1867), he put his “scientific” theories of the determination of character by heredity and environment into practice for the first time. These ideas established him as the founder of naturalism in literature. In 1870 he began the ambi¬ tious project for which he is best known, the Rougon-Macquart Cycle (1871-93), a sequence of 20 novels documenting French life through the lives of the violent Rougon family and the passive Macquarts. It includes LAssommoir (1877), a study of alcoholism that is among his most suc¬ cessful and popular novels; Nana (1880); Germinal (1885), his master¬ piece; and La Bete humaine (1890). Among his other works are two shorter novel cycles and treatises explaining his theories on art, including The Experimental Novel (1880). He is also notable for his involvement in the Alfred Dreyfus affair, especially for his open letter, “J’accuse” (1898), denouncing the French army general staff. He died under suspicious cir¬ cumstances, overcome by carbon-monoxide fumes in his sleep.

Zollverein Vtsol-ver-.InN (German: “Customs Union”) Free-trade area throughout much of Germany established in 1834 under Prussian leader¬ ship. The customs union developed from the 1818 Prussian tariff law that abolished internal customs dues and the customs union set up in 1828 in southern Germany by Bavaria and Wiirttemberg. By 1834 other German states had joined, for a total of 18 members; more joined in subsequent years. The Zollverein represented an important step in German unifica¬ tion. See also Friedrich List.

zombi In Vodou, a dead person who is revived after burial and com¬ pelled to do the bidding of the reviver, including criminal acts and heavy manual labour. It is believed that actual zombis are living persons under the influence of powerful drugs, including burundanga (a drug reportedly used by Colombian criminals) and drugs derived from poisonous toads and puffer fish.

zone melting Any of a group of techniques used to purify an element or a compound or to control its composition by melting a short region (called a zone) and causing this liquid zone to travel slowly through a relatively long ingot, or charge, of the solid. In zone refining, the most important of the zone-melting techniques, a solid is refined by multiple molten zones being passed through it in one direction. Each zone carries a fraction of the impurities to the end of the solid charge, thereby puri¬ fying the remainder. Zone refining is particularly important as a method of purifying crystals, especially for use in semiconductor devices.

zone of avoidance See avoidance, zone of

zoning Legislative method of controlling land use by regulating consid¬ erations such as the type of buildings that may be erected and population density. German and Swedish cities first applied zoning regulations in the late 19th century to address the problems of urban congestion and building height. The earliest U.S. zoning ordinances, which date from the beginning of the 20th century, were motivated by the need to regulate the location of commercial and industrial activities. In 1916 New York City adopted the first comprehensive zoning law; it and other early regulations were designed to protect property values and preserve light and air. Modern zon¬

ing regulations divide land use into three types: residential, commercial, and industrial. Within each designation, more specific aspects of develop¬ ment (e.g., building proximity, height, and type) are also determined. Zon¬ ing is often used to maintain the distinctive character of a town or city; an adverse consequence of such zoning is economic segregation. The Supreme Court of the United States ruled against such laws in 1977 when it declared the zoning regulations of one Chicago suburb discriminatory.

zoo or zoological garden Place where wild and sometimes domes¬ ticated animals are exhibited in captivity. Aquatic zoological gardens are called aquariums. The first zoos were perhaps associated with domesti¬ cation. Pigeons were kept in captivity as early as 4500 bc; other animals (e.g., elephants and antelopes) have also been kept in captivity since antiquity. Animal collections were kept by Charlemagne and other Euro¬ pean monarchs. Hernan Cortes described a zoo in Mexico (1519) so large that it required a staff of 300. Modern zookeeping started in 1752 with the founding of the Imperial Menagerie at Vienna’s Schonbrunn Palace. Open-range zoos were first established in the early 1930s, some so large that visitors drive through in cars, as on an African safari. There are now more than 1,000 animal collections open to the public throughout the world (e.g., in the U.S., the Bronx Zoo and San Diego Zoo).

zoology Branch of biology concerned with members of the animal king¬ dom and with animal life in general. The science originated in the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Pliny. The contributions of individuals such as William Harvey (the circulation of blood), Carolus Linnaeus (system of nomenclature), Georges-Louis de Buffon (natural history), Georges Cuvier (comparative anatomy), and Claude Bernard (homeostasis) greatly advanced the field. The 1859 publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection was a major turning point. Since that time, the study of genetics has become essential in zoological studies.

zooplankton \ l zo-9- , plaqk-t3n\ Small floating or weakly swimming animals that drift with water currents and, with phytoplankton, make up the planktonic food supply on which almost all oceanic organisms ulti¬ mately depend (see plankton). Included are many animals, from single- celled radiolarians to the eggs or larvae of herrings, crabs, and lobsters. Permanent plankton (holoplankton), such as protozoans and copepods, spend their lives as plankton. Temporary plankton (meroplankton), such as young starfish, clams, worms, and other bottom-dwelling animals, live and feed as plankton until they become adults.

Zorn, John (b. Sept. 2, 1953, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. saxophonist and composer. His music incorporates influences from the most diverse elements of music and culture: free jazz, klezmer music, punk rock, cartoon music, film scores, and contemporary classical music. His “game pieces,” such as Cobra (1984), involve rules—understood by his musicians and cued by hand signals—that determine the flow of the music, placing emphasis on the process rather than the result of the performance.

Zoroaster Vzor-s-.was-torX or Zarathustra V.zar-o-'thiish-troN (b. c. 628, probably Rhages, Iran—d. c. 551 bce) Iranian religious reformer and prophet, founder of Zoroastrianism and Parsiism. He was a priest in his tribal religion, with which he eventually became disillusioned. Having received a vision, he began teaching that Ahura Mazda was the highest god and alone was worthy of worship, a concept that went against the polytheism of Iranian religion. He forbade the orgiastic rites that accom¬ panied animal sacrifice, common in his time, but preserved the ancient cult of fire worship. After converting a king called Vishtaspa to his teach¬ ings, Zoroaster remained at the royal court. He became the subject of leg¬ ends and a model for various occupations.

Zoroastrianism and Parsiism Ancient religion that originated in Iran based on the teachings of Zoroaster. Founded in the 6th century bce, it influenced the monotheistic religions Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It rejects polytheism, accepting only one supreme God, Ahura Mazda. In early Zoroastrianism, the struggle between good and evil was seen as an eternal rivalry between Ahura Mazda’s twin sons, Spenta Mainyu (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil). Later Zoroastrian cosmology made the rivalry between Ahura Mazda himself (by then called Ormizd) and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman). This later cosmology identifies four periods of history; the last began with the birth of Zoroaster. Zoroastrian practice includes an initia¬ tion ceremony and various rituals of purification intended to ward off evil spirits. Fire worship, a carryover from an earlier religion, survives in the sacred fire that must be kept burning continually and be fed at least five times a day. The chief ceremony involves a sacrifice of haoma, a sacred liquor, accompanied by recitation of large parts of the Avesta, the primary

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Zorrilla ► Zurbaran I 2113

scripture. Zoroastrianism enjoyed status as an official religion at various times before the advent of Islam, but Zoroastrians were persecuted in the 8th-10th centuries, and some left Iran to settle in India. By the 19th cen¬ tury these Indian Zoroastrians, or Parsis, were noted for their wealth and education. The small group of Zoroastrians remaining in Iran are known as the Gabars.

Zorrilla \thor-'rel-ya\ (y Moral), Jose (b. Feb. 21, 1817, Valladolid, Spain—d. Jan. 23, 1893, Madrid) Spanish poet and dramatist. Zorrilla first gained notice in 1837 with his recitation of an elegy at the funeral of the satirist Mariano Jose de Larra. The major figure of the nationalist wing of the Spanish Romantic movement, he made his name with verse ley- endas (“legends”) about remote times and places, notably in Cantos del trovador (1841). His greatest success was Don Juan Tenorio (1844), the most popular play of 19th-century Spain. His works are considered quint- essentially Spanish in style and tone. In 1889 he was crowned the national poet.

Zu Chongzhi (b. 429, Jiankang, China—d. 500, China) Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and engineer. About 462 he proposed a new calendar system that would provide a more precise number of lunations per year and take into consideration the precession of the equinoxes. His Darning calendar was finally adopted in 510 through the efforts of his son, Zu Gengzhi. Li Chunfeng called Zu Chongzhi the best mathematician ever and gave him credit for three approximations of n: 22 /i, 355 /ii3, and the interval 3.1415926

Zu Gengzhi also known as Zu Xuan (b. c. 480, Jiankang, China—d. c. 525, China) Chinese government official, mathematician, astronomer, and son of Zu Cfiongzhi. Beginning in 504, he actively advocated his father’s Darning calendar and finally succeeded in getting it officially adopted in 510. His astronomical observations with gnomons allowed him to measure the angular distance between Polaris and the celestial north pole. A mathematical fragment of his was appended by Li Chunfeng to the commentary on Jiuzhang suanshu (.Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Procedures), a Chinese classic probably compiled in the 1st century ad. Fragments of his writings are also found in the astronomical chapter of Suishu (“History of the Sui Dynasty”). His fame as a mathematician rests primarily on his derivation and proof of the formula for the volume of a sphere.

Zuccaro Vtsii-kar-oV, Federico or Federico Zuccari \'tsii-kar-e\ (b. c. 1540, Sant’Angelo in Vado, Duchy of Urbino—d. July 20, 1609, Ancona) Italian painter and art theorist. In 1565 he worked in Florence with Giorgio Vasari. He codified the theory of Mannerism in The Idea of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1607) and in a series of frescoes in his own house in Rome. In England in 1575 he drew or painted portraits of Elizabeth I and the earl of Leicester. He also painted the dome of the cathedral of Florence (1574), a large work in the Doges’ Palace in Ven¬ ice (1582), and much work for El Escorial in Spain (1585-88). At one time the central figure of the Roman Mannerist school, he lived to see Mannerism become extinct.

zucchini Subspecies of Cucurbita pepo, dark green elongate summer squash in the gourd family, of great abundance in U.S. home gardens and supermarkets. The creeping vine has five-lobed leaves, tendrils, and large yellow flowers.

Zuckerman Vtsuk-or-.manV Yitzhak or Yitzhak Cukierman

\'tsuk-3r-,man\ (b. 1915, Warsaw, Pol.—d. June 17, 1981, Tel Aviv, Israel) Hero of Jewish resistance to the Nazis in World War II. Active in Zionist organizations in his native Warsaw, he urged the creation and arming of a Jewish defense organization after the German takeover of Poland. He used his contacts outside the Warsaw Ghetto to smuggle in a few arms. He took command after the other leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising were killed, and eventually he led some 75 people through the sewers to safety. He continued leading Jewish resistance and alerting Jewish lead¬ ers elsewhere to the situation in Nazi Europe. At war’s end he helped organize transportation for Jewish refugees to Palestine.

zuhd Vzu-hodX Islamic asceticism. Though Islam permits unforbidden pleasure, it praises those who shun luxury in favour of a simple and pious

life. Zuhd may have been influenced directly by the Christian hermits who had some contact with early Muslims. It was institutionalized in Islam as a result of Muslim conquests, which brought material wealth and wide¬ spread indulgence in luxurious living. Devout Muslims reacted by call¬ ing for a return to the way of life of Muhammad, who spent long periods in solitary vigil, fasting and praying. See also Sufism.

Zuiderzee X.zl-dor-'za, .zl-dor-'zeV Dutch "Southern Sea" Former inlet of the North Sea, northern coast of The Netherlands. From the 13th to the 20th century, it penetrated The Netherlands and occupied 2,000 sq mi (5,000 sq km), separated from the North Sea by an arc of former sand flats that are now the West Frisian Islands. Frisian peoples inhabited the sand flats from c. ad 400 and built the first sea works, considered engi¬ neering marvels, to stem rising sea levels. The control of water levels within the dikes developed into the reclamation of lowlands (polders) from the water. Between 1927 and 1932 a dam 19 mi (30 km) long was built across the Zuiderzee, separating it into the Waddenzee and the Ijs¬ selmeer. By the early 1980s four polders (of five proposed), largely agri¬ cultural land, had been created.

Zulu Nguni-speaking people living in KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. Numbering about 9.5 million, they are South Africa’s largest eth¬ nic group. Traditionally grain farmers, they also kept large herds of cattle. European settlers wrested grazing and water resources from the Zulu in prolonged warfare during the 19th century; with much of their wealth lost, modern Zulu depend largely on wage labour on farms owned by whites or work in the cities. The Zulu provide the main support for the Inkatha Freedom Party. Many Zulu belong to independent or separatist African churches, though the traditional religion, based on ancestor worship and belief in a creator-god, witches, and sorcerers, remains strong. See also Shaka.

Zululand Historical region, eastern South Africa. It was the home of the Zulu people when Chief Shaka established dominance over what is now KwaZulu-Natal. His state fought the Boers in the 1840s; it later lost parts of its territory to them. The British moved into nearby Natal and annexed it in 1843. The Zulu resisted British rule in 1878 but were over¬ come in 1879. The British made Zululand a crown colony in 1887 and annexed it to Natal in 1897. Under the apartheid system, a Bantu home¬ land named KwaZulu, composed of parts of the historical Zululand, was established for the Zulu in the 1970s. With the abolition of the apartheid system, KwaZulu in 1994 was reincorporated into Natal province, which was renamed KwaZulu-Natal.

Zuni \'zii-ne\ North American Pueblo Indian people living in west-central New Mexico, U.S. They call themselves Ashiwi. Their origin and early history are uncertain. When first encountered by 16th-century Spanish explorers, they were living in seven separate towns thought by the explor¬ ers to be the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola; under the Spaniards they were crowded into a single pueblo. The traditional occupation was com farm¬ ing; basketry and pottery were also well developed. Religious life centred on gods or spirits called kachinas. Today the Zuni number about 12,000.

Zunz \'tsimts\, Leopold Hebrew Yom-Tob Lippmann (b. Aug. 10, 1794, Detmold, Lippe—d. March 18, 1886, Berlin) German historian of Jewish literature. After taking his doctorate at Halle, he spent much of his life in a precarious struggle with poverty. With the publication of his seminal work, On Rabbinic Literature (1818), he initiated (1819) the movement called Wissenschaft des Judentums (“Science of Judaism”), which stressed the analysis of Jewish literature and culture with the tools of modern scholarship. His On History and Literature (1845) places Jew¬ ish literary activity in the context of European literature and politics. Zunz is often considered the greatest Jewish scholar of the 19th century.

Zuo zhuan or Tso chuan \'dzw6-'jwan\ Ancient commentary on the Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn Annals”). It provides extensive narrative accounts and background materials concerning events covered in the Chunqiu, as well as authentic historical documents and written evidence of the philosophical schools of the time. Finally, it provides a compre¬ hensive account of the principal political, social, and military events of the period. It was once believed to have been written by Zuo, an ancient historian about whom virtually nothing is known, but modern scholarship attributes it to an anonymous author of the period 475-221 bce.

Zurbaran \,zur-b3-'ran\, Francisco de (baptized Nov. 7, 1598, Fuente de Cantos, Spain—d. Aug. 27, 1664, Madrid) Spanish painter. He was apprenticed in 1614 to a painter in Sevilla (Seville), where he lived

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2114 I Zurich ► zymogen

until 1658 when he moved to Madrid. He had a few royal commissions but remained throughout his life a provincial painter of religious pictures. His apostles, saints, and monks are painted with almost sculptural mod¬ eling, and his emphasis on the minutiae of their dress lends verisimilitude to their miracles, visions, and ecstasies. This distinctive combination of naturalism with religious sensibility conforms to the guidelines for Counter-Reformation artists outlined by the Council of Trent. He had numerous commissions from monasteries and churches throughout south¬ ern Spain, and many of his works were sent to Lima, Peru. His late devo¬ tional paintings show the influence of Bartolome Esteban Murillo.

Zurich \'tsui-rik\ or Zurich \'zur-ik\ City (pop., 2000: city, 363,273; 1998 est.: metro, area, 935,118), Switzerland. Located at the northwest¬ ern end of Lake ZOrich, the site was occupied first by prehistoric lake dwellers and later by the Celtic Helvetii before the Romans conquered the area c. 58 bc. It subsequently was held by the Alamanni and the Franks. Zurich grew as a trade centre, and in 1218 it became a free imperial city. In 1351 it joined the Swiss Confederation. Under the leadership of Hul- drych Zwingu, Zurich became the centre of the Swiss Reformation in the 16th century. Attracting refugees from the Counter-Reformation, it estab¬ lished a liberal democratic order during the 1830s. Long an industrial centre and Switzerland’s largest city, Zurich is also an important finan¬ cial centre and a major tourist destination. The city’s cultural treasures include the National Museum (1833) and the Zurich Opera (1891).

Zurich, Lake German Zurichsee \'tsie-rik- l za\ Lake, north-central Switzerland. Extending southeast from the city of ZOrich, it lies at an alti¬ tude of 1,332 ft (406 m) and has an area of about 34 sq mi (88 sq km). It is 18 mi (29 km) long and has a maximum depth of 469 ft (143 m). The Linth River flows into it and emerges as the Limmat.

Zuse Vtsu-Z9\, Konrad (b. June 22, 1910, Berlin, Ger.—d. Dec. 18, 1995, Hiinfeld) German engineer. In 1941 he constructed the first fully operational program-controlled electromechanical binary calculating machine, or digital computer, called the Z3. The machine predated Howard H. Aiken’s Harvard Mark I but was destroyed by bombing during World War II. In 1945 he designed Plankalkiil, one of the first attempts at a high- level programming language, which later influenced the development of ALGOL.

Zweig \'tsv!k\, Arnold (b. Nov. 10, 1887, Glogau, Silesia, Ger.—d. Nov. 26, 1968, East Berlin, E.Ger.) German writer. Zweig, who was Jew¬ ish, was exiled from Germany by the Nazis in 1933. He lived as an emi¬ gre in Palestine until 1948, when he moved to East Germany. He is best known for the novel The Case of Sergeant Grischa (1927), which depicts the German army in World War I through a Russian prisoner’s tragic encounter with the Prussian military bureaucracy. Later works, including Education Before Verdun (1935) and The Crowning of a King (1937), fol¬ low the fortunes of characters he introduced in Sergeant Grischa.

Zweig, Stefan (b. Nov. 28, 1881, Vienna, Austro-Hungarian Empire—d. Feb. 22, 1942, Petropolis, near Rio de Janeiro, Braz.) Aus¬ trian writer. He was deeply influenced by Sigmund Freud, whose theories on psychology informed Zweig’s analyses of historical figures and his subtle portrayal of fictional characters. His essays include studies of Hon¬ or! de Balzac, Charles Dickens, and Fyodor Dostoyevsky, in Three Masters (1920); and Friedrich Holderun, Heinrich Kleist, and Friedrich Nietzsche, in Master Builders (1925). He achieved popularity with The Tide of Fortune (1928), five historical portraits in miniature. He also wrote biographies, poetry, short stories, dramas, and a novel. Driven into exile by the Nazis in 1934, Zweig and his second wife went to England and then Brazil, where, lonely and disillusioned, they committed suicide.

Zwicky Vtsvik-e\, Fritz (b. Feb. 14, 1898, Varna, Bulg.—d. Feb. 8, 1974, Pasadena, Calif., U.S.) Swiss astronomer and physicist. He received his Ph.D. from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and moved to the U.S. in 1925 to work at Caltech, where he remained until 1972. In 1934, with Walter Baade (1893-1960), he proposed that supernovas are a class of stellar explosions completely different from novas. He conducted an extensive search of neighbouring galaxies for supernovas and discov¬ ered 18; only about 12 had been recorded previously in the entire history of astronomy. In the years 1943-46, with Theodore von Karman and oth¬ ers, he helped develop early jet-propulsion systems.

Zwilich \'zwi-lik\, Ellen Taaffe (b. April 30, 1939, Miami, Fla., U.S.) U.S. composer. She was trained as a violinist, studying with Ivan

Galamian (1903-81). She studied composition with Elliott Carter and Roger Sessions at Juilliard. Her straightforward and expressive music won wide recognition; her Symphony No. 1 (1983) was the first composition by a woman to win a Pulitzer Prize. Her orchestral work Symbolon pre¬ miered in Russia in 1988. She is noted for writing music that is both sub¬ stantive and accessible.

Zwinger Vtsviq-orX Rococo-style building complex (1709-32), on the southern bank of the Elbe in Dresden, Germany, designed by Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann (1662-1736). Originally planned as the forecourt for a castle, it is considered one of the finest works of its style in the world. It comprises one- and two-story buildings surrounding an immense square court. Its festive air is accented by bold, richly sculpted and ornamented facades and gates and by dramatic contrasts between its low arcades and high pavilions.

Zwingli \'zwiq-le,\ German Vtsvir Wildhaus in the Toggenburg, Sankt Gallen, Switz.—d. Oct. 11, 1531, near Kappel) Major reformer in the Protestant Reformation in Switzer¬ land. Educated in Vienna and Basel, he was ordained a priest in 1506. An admirer of Erasmus, he began preach¬ ing reformist ideas in Zurich in 1518, shortly after Martin Luther made his break with the church in Rome, and became increasingly active in chal¬ lenging the ritualism, decadence, and hierarchy of the Roman Catholic church. The main contentions of his 67 Articles (1523) were adopted by most priests in Zurich. As his move¬ ment spread, he rejected a number of the basic teachings of the church, declaring that Jesus alone is head of the church, that the mass is an affront to Christ, and that there is no bibli¬ cal foundation for the intercession of the dead or for purgatory. He also rejected the notions of priestly celibacy, and his teachings on the sacra¬ ment of communion brought him into conflict with both Luther and the Catholic church. He was killed in a battle between Protestants and Catho¬ lics while serving as an army chaplain.

Zworykin \'zvor y -kyin,\ English Vzwor-i-kanN, Vladimir (Kosma) (b. July 30, 1889, Murom, Russia—d. July 29, 1982, Princeton, N.J., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. electronic engineer and inventor. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1919. While with Westinghouse Electric Corp. (1920-29), he filed patent applications for his inventions of the iconoscope (a TV transmis¬ sion tube, 1923) and the kinescope (TV receiver, 1924), which formed the first all-electronic TV system. He patented a colour TV system in 1928. In 1929 he became director of electronic research at RCA. His electron image tube, sensitive to infrared light, was the basis for devices first used in World War II for seeing in the dark.

zydeco Vzl-d9-,k6\ Form of dance music from southwestern Louisiana, U.S., with roots in French, African American, and Afro-Caribbean styles. Similar to the music of the Cajuns (displaced French Canadians who settled in Louisiana), zydeco was created by the Creoles (those of Afri¬ can heritage in Louisianan French culture). Its name is thought to come from a modified pronunciation of the French phrase les haricots (“the beans”) heard in a popular song. The music usually features guitar, accor¬ dion, fiddle (violin), and washboard played to a driving beat, but it may also include electric guitar, electric bass, saxophone, and keyboards. It became widely popular in the 1980s through the performances of Clifton Chenier, Queen Ida, Buckwheat Zydeco, Boozoo Chavis, and others.

zymogen VzI-mo-jonV or proenzyme Any of a class of proteins that are secreted by cells and are inactive precursors of enzymes. Transforma¬ tion into active enzymes occurs as one or more peptide bonds in the zymogen are cleaved. Examples include trypsinogen and chymotrypsino- gen, secreted by the pancreas and converted by proteolysis in the small intestine into the active enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin; and numerous coagulation factors.

)-le\, Huldrych (b. Jan. 1, 1484,

Zwingli, detail of an oil portrait by Hans Asper, 1531; in the Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Switz.

COURTESY OF THE KUNSTMUSEUM WINTERTHUR, SWITZ.; PHOTOGRAPH, SCHWEIZERISCHES INSTITUT FUR KUNSTWISSENSCHAFT

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

2115

Encyclopaedia Britannica

Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board Jorge Aguilar-Cauz, President

Editorial

Dale H. Hoiberg, Senior Vice President and Editor

Anita Wolff, Deputy Editor Marsha Mackenzie, Managing Editor and Director of Production Michael Levy, Senior Manager,

Editorial Projects Robert Curley, Senior Editor Brian Duignan, Senior Editor Kathleen Kuiper, Senior Editor Kenneth Pletcher, Senior Editor Jeffrey Wallenfeldt, Senior Editor Charles Cegielski, Associate Editor Michael Frassetto, Associate Editor James Hennelly, Associate Editor William L. Hosch, Associate Editor Michael R. Hynes, Associate Editor Amy McKenna, Associate Editor Tom Michael, Associate Editor Sarah Forbes Orwig, Associate Editor Amy Tikkanen, Associate Editor

Kathleen B. Sheetz, Executive Assistant

Art Department

Kathy Nakamura, Senior Media Editor David Alexovich, Manager,

Illustration

Thomas J. Spanos, Lead Electronic Illustrator

Christine McCabe, Illustrator

Jerry Kraus, Illustrator

Katherine D. Burgess, Assistant Illustrator

Claudiu Varan, Assistant Illustrator

Cartography Michael Nutter, Map Editor

Composition Technology and Design

Steven N. Kapusta, Director Cate Nichols, Compositor Lara C. Mondae, Designer

Copy Department

Sylvia Wallace, Director Julian Ronning, Supervisor Joan Lackowski, Special Projects Supervisor J.E. Luebering, Senior Copy Editor Jennifer Mack, Senior Copy Editor Rene Ostberg, Copy Editor Marya Park, Copy Editor Michael Ray, Copy Editor

Editorial Technologies

Steven Bosco, Director Gavin Chiu, Principal Engineer Bruce Walters, Systems Coordinator Mark Wiechec, Principal Engineer

Publishing Technologies

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Reference Library

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Manufacturing Kim Gerber, Director

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Merriam-Webster

The following is the editorial staff of Merriam-Webster that contributed to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia:

Editor: Mark A. Stevens; Associate Editors: Jocelyn White Franklin, Francesca M. Forrest, Kathleen M. Doherty; Art Coordinator: Lynn Stowe Tomb; Pronunciation Editor: David B. Justice

Merriam-Webster Consultants: Anne Agur (University of Toronto), Robert Audi (University of Nebraska), Carol Berkin (Baruch College, City University of New York), Paul Bottino (University of Maryland), Brian Burrell (University of Massachusetts), Louis P. Cain (Loyola University Chicago, Northwestern University), Francis D. K. Ching (University of Washington), Dale F. Eickelman (Dartmouth College), John A. Garraty (Columbia University [emeritus]), Robert B. Gordon (Yale University), James J. Jenkins (University of South Florida), John W. Johnson (University of Northern Iowa), Daniel Kaiser (Sarah Lawrence College), Cornelis Klein (University of New Mexico), Joel Krieger (Wellesley College), James M. Powell (Syracuse University [emeritus]), Edwin D. Reilly, Jr. (SUNY-Albany [emeritus]), Conrad Schirokauer (Columbia University), Stephen L. Schneider (University of Massachusetts), Thomas E. Skidmore (Brown University), Fredric P. Smoler (Sarah Lawrence College), Graham Speake (Oxford University), William C. Summers (Yale University), Christine Sutton (Oxford University), Birdsall S. Viault (Winthrop University [emeritus]), David K. Wyatt (Cornell University), Mark J. Zucker (Louisiana State University)

Merriam-Webster Editorial Staff: Michael G. Belanger, Susan L. Brady, Deanna Chiasson, Jennifer N. Cislo, Robert D. Copeland, Joanne M. Despres, Florence A. Fowler, Daniel J. Hopkins, Joan I. Narmontas, Kara L. Noble, Madeline L. Novak, Sean O'Mannion-Espejo, Roger J. Pease, Stephen J. Perrault, Thomas F. Pitoniak, James L. Rader, Donna L. Rickerby, Michael D. Roundy, Maria A. Sansalone, Adrienne M. Scholz, Michael Shally-Jensen, Peter A. Sokolowski, Karen L. Wilkinson

Particular acknowledgment is due to Jennifer Cislo, who fact-checked the great majority of the encyclopedia's entries; Mike Roundy, who advised on a range of scientific and technical subject areas; Deanna Chiasson, who coordinated the provision of pronunciations; Jim Rader, who served as language consultant; Steve Perrault, who served as sports consult¬ ant; Dan Hopkins, who acted as in-house cartography coordinator; Roger Pease, who drew up the botany and zoology entry lists; Joan Narmontas, who oversaw creation of the biological diagrams; Sean O'Mannion-Espejo and Peter Sokolowski, who wrote many of the music articles; Karen Wilkinson, who prepared many of the tables; Robert Copeland, who handled the file conversions; and Adrienne Scholz, who proofread virtually the entire volume. Mike Shally-Jensen contributed valuable analyses and many hundreds of articles in the project's early stages.

Merriam-Webster Freelance Staff: Michael J. Anderson, Cynthia Susan Ashby, Arlene Bensam, Frank Calvillo, May K. Chapman, Mary Wood Cornog, Lori Dirks, Jennifer Goss Duby, Elizabeth Morris Ewell, Amy Fass, Sharon Goldstein, Mary Catherine Hager, Helen Downs Haller, Orin K. Hargraves, Stephanie Hiebert, Betty B. Hoskins, Patricia Hurley Jarden, Anthony P. Johnson, Frances Kianka, Mark L. Koontz, Polly Kummel, Lynne Lackenbach, Ellen S. Leach, Arthur Maisel, Danny Marcus, Marvin Martin, Doris Maxfield, Wayne F. Moquin, Caroline Power, Margo Quinto, Mary H. Russell, Barbara H. Salazar, Fran Shonfeld Sherman, Elizabeth Stevens, Jeri Stolk, Barbara R. Tepperman, Deborah J. Untener, Helen M. Webber, Holly Isabella Webber

The project owes special thanks to Mike Anderson, Susan Ashby, Amy Fass, Mary Catherine Hager, Helen Haller, Stephanie Hiebert, Polly Kummel, Lynne Lackenbach, Barbara Salazar, and Holly Webber for their unusually extensive work.

Other Contributors: Tech-Graphics Corporation of Atlantic Highlands, N.J., produced the encyclopedia's diagrams. John Nelson provided its maps. Susana Darwin and Amor Montes de Oca selected and prepared the photographs from the Encyclopaedia Britannica collection. Mark Diller drew up the religion entry list. Ellen Sullivan Farley and Loree Hany assisted in technical preparation of the art. Dale Good served as consultant on project management. Ted Atanowski pro¬ vided computer assistance. The text was typeset by the Clarinda Co. of Clarinda, Iowa, under the exemplary direction of Dee Hughes. Finally, John M. Morse, publisher of Merriam-Webster, conceived the encyclopedia more than 20 years before its publication and offered indispensable support and encouragement throughout its development.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Flags of the World I Plate 1

Albania

Algeria

Andorra* Angola

Plate 2 I Flags of the World

Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

Burundi Cambodia Cameroon

Cote d'Ivoire Croatia Cuba

Civil flags are shown except where marked thus (*); in these cases, government flags are shown in order to illustrate emblems. Both styles are official national flags.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Flags of the World I Plate 3

Finland* France Gabon

Civil flags are shown except where marked thus (*); in these cases, government flags are shown in order to illustrate emblems. © 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Both styles are official national flags.

Ghana

Greece

Grenada

Flags of the World I Plate 5

Malawi Malaysia Maldives

Civil flags are shown except where marked thus (*); in these cases, government flags are shown in order to illustrate emblems.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Bo,h s, y |es are official national flags.

Plate 6 I Flags of the World

Moldova

Monaco

Nicaragua* Niger Nigeria

Civil flags are shown except where marked thus (*); in these cases, government flags are shown in order to illustrate emblems. Both styles are official national flags.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Flags of the World I Plate 7

Oman Pakistan

Panama Papua New Guinea

Paraguay

Peru*

Philippines

Plate 8 I Flags of the World

Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia and Montenegro

Somalia South Africa Spain

Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania

Civil flags are shown except where marked thus (*); in these cases, government flags are shown in order to illustrate emblems. Both styles are official national flags.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Flags of the World I Plate 9

Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda

United States Uruguay Uzbekistan

Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe

Civil flags are shown except where marked thus (*); in these cases, government flags are shown in order to illustrate emblems.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Bo,h s, y |es are official national flags.

Plate 10 I World Political Map

120 °

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GREENLAND

(DEN.)

ARCTIC<

GREENLAND

Baffin

:hukchi

,Great v*

BearL.

OCEAN

SLjj,

ureal Slave L.

Hudson- Bay

Anchorage'

-LABRADOR

\ SEA

Edmonton

Vancouver

NEWFOUNDLAND *St. John's

P/r^jP-

UNITED

STATES

lalgary* ^ .Winnipeg

^ Superior QuetofTy 1 )

!'* |j Minneapolis @ .Mmrtr.al _

T E^jD -jrS T A T E S a".N ew York City . .Denver .Kansas City Philadelphia

s -Tt i-kTiTivCu St. Louis Washington, D.C.

. • tv "" v r

J& , Dallas" “7“,

Portland

San Francisco

Houston

v Monterrey

Tropic of Cancer

Guadalajara*

Mexico City & Belrnopan ,j. 1 BELIZE

enlVElSlif H0NDURfls J ™

GUATEMALA w/ . .

San Salvador® 1 ^Tegucigalpa

EL SALVADOR ® NICARAGUA

Managua

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OCEAN

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^.Cayenne

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PALMYRA ATOLL (U.S.)

Guayaquil'

,Fortaleza

BRAZILIAN

SAMOA

Salvador

AMERICAN SAMOA (U.S.)

FRENCH

POLYNESIA

(FR.)

Arequipa

,Belo Horizonte

Rio de Janeiro

I r _ 0 PL c ° f _ c _ a PI i ?o r _ n

Antofagasta*

SAN FfiLIX I. SAN AMBROSIOI.

EASTER I. (CHILE)

CHACO/

Pfirto Alegre

(CHILE)

Cordoba-

A, Rosario'

Ml. Aconcagua :a ^

Santiago |

) > c Concepcidn* ( ARGE

CHILE

CHILOEI. \ §

JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS

(CHILE)

Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom claim portions of Antarctica; all claims in Antarctica are in abeyance underthe terms of the Antarctic Treaty effective in 1961.

FALKLAND IS.

(ISLAS MALVINAS)

(administered by U.K., claimed by ARG.)

SOUTH GEORGIA (U.K.)

TIERRA DEL FUEGO

UNITED STATES.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Cienfuegos*

TURKS AND CAICOS IS. (U.K.)

BRITISH VIRGIN IS.

g0 . PUERTO RICO , (U.K.)

DOM. (U.S.) San / ANGUILLA (U.K.)

REP. ® ®Juan (S) The Valley

Santo Domingo / ANTIGUA

VIRGIN ISLANDS Basseterre^ ^AND BARBl (U.S.) . St. John's

ST. KITTS AND NEVIS / <=-, GUADEL

MONTSERRAT (U.K.) ^Basse-Terre DOMINICA® Roseau Fort-de-France^ MARTI ST. LUCIA® Kingstown Castries ST. VINCENT AND ® fip ® THE GRENADINES ^ I GRENADA^ ^

Camagiley* .Holguin

Bayamo. .Guantanamo q Santiago

de Cuba HA

Kingston^ M/W, Port-ai

Princ

JAMAICA 6

CAYMAN

ISLANDS

(U.K.)

’Bridgetown

BARBADOS

ARUBA (NETH.)^

Oranjestad*'

Barranquilla ( Cartagena*

COSTA

e RICA

San Jose

Caracas®

Panama City

VENEZUELA

Ciudad Guayana

(DEN.)

Arctic Circle

Reykjavik ICELAND

UNITED

KINGDOM

IRELAND

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Lisbon?[5PAIN;

Rabat ~

Equator

(ECUADOR)

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Casablanca^tJ^i CANARY IS. (SPAIN)

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WESTERN! - ^ , SAHARA 5 (occupied by Morocco) 5

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verEI the Gambia;

p,aia ®

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Pinar

THE WORLD

CITIES • City

® National capital ® Other capital ■ Other administrative centre

BOUNDARIES a] International

Scale by latitude

1,000

1,610

2,000 mi

3,220 km

Robinson Projection

D 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

World Political Map I Plate 11

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World Populations I Plate 13

World Population Density

Indigenous Skin Color

The distribution of skin color variations of indigenous populations before colonization by Europeans.

This map represents a reconstruction of populations based on a number of sources. In some cases, areal characteristics have been estimated from descriptions (or drawings) of first contact by the earliest Europeans. In other cases, where there was little European contact or where there is scant information about native populations (as, for example, the populations of Inner Asia), skin color was estimated from surrounding populations and geographic and climatological information. On a map of this scale, it is difficult to give more than a representation of current understanding. It must also be noted that many populations, even before the modern era, were quite heterogeneous in skin color, and this heterogeneity is difficult to depict accurately on any scale. In areas of the world where the indigenous population was sparse and widely scattered (such as Australia), the map's color density can be misleading. Further, some populations, such as the Tasmanians (who are virtually extinct) and Maoris (who have been widely mixed with Europeans), present only a few examples of "unmixed" individuals in historical records.

© 2006 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Plate 14 I World Heritage sites

On this plate and the adjoining one is a sampling of official World Heritage sites, as designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

v -A iffiA fa. * j

This page (clockwise):

Rose window, Notre-Dame de Paris, 13th century; terra-cotta warriors from the 3rd-century bc Qin tomb of Emperor Shihuangdi, near Xi'an, China; elephants and acacia trees on the plain near Kilimanjaro, Tanzania; abundant and colourful sea life on the Great Barrier Reef, off the northeast coast of Australia; cruciform Coptic church carved from solid rock, c. 13th century, Lalibela, Ethiopia.

World Heritage sites I Plate 15

This page (clockwise from top left) the pyramid El Castillo in the Mayan city of Chichen Itza, founded 6th century ad, Yucatan, Mexico; Temple of the Golden Pavilion, Kydto, Japan, 14th century (rebuilt, 1955); the Taj Mahal, built mainly 1632-43 by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, Agra, India; giant tortoise on Isabela Island, Galapagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador; Anasazi cliff dwellings, c. 1200, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado; detail of a painted ceiling in Rila Monastery, southwestern Bulgaria.

Plate 15: Photographs (clockwise from top left) © Corbis; Kaz Mori—The Image Bank/Getty Images; Gavin Hellier—Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; Craig Lovell/Corbis; Walter Rawlings —Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; © Corbis.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

© 2006 Encyclopsedia Britannica, Inc.

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