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Hillel (fl. 1st century bc-c. first quarter of the 1st century ad) Jewish sage and architect of rabbinic Judaism. Born in Babylonia, he went to Pal¬ estine to complete his studies under the Pharisees. He became the revered head of the school known by his name, the House of Hillel, and his care¬ fully applied method of exegesis came to be called the Seven Rules of Hillel. He liberated texts from a slavish literal interpretation and sought to make obedience to the Law feasible for all Jews. His legal writings were very influential in the compilation of the Talmud, which also contains many stories and legends about his life. He is remembered as a model scholar and communal leader, whose brilliance, patience, and goodness are to be emulated by all rabbis.

876 I Hilliard ► Hindemith

Hilliard Vhil-yardV Nicholas (b. 1547, Exeter, Eng.—d. Jan. 7, 1619, London) British painter. The son of a goldsmith, he trained as a jeweler and began painting miniatures in his youth. In 1570 he was appointed miniature painter to Elizabeth I. He produced many portraits of her and of such members of her court as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh. He retained his appointment on the accession of James I (1603), while also practicing as a goldsmith and jeweler. The first great native-born English painter of the Renaissance, he raised the art of miniature painting to its high¬ est point of development and influenced English portraiture through the early 17th century.

Hillman, Sidney orig. Simcha Hillman (b. March 23, 1887, Zagare, Lith.—d. July 10, 1946, Point Lookout, N.Y., U.S.) Lithuanian- born U.S. labour leader. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1907, became a garment worker, and was elected president of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America in 1914. Under his leadership the union greatly increased its membership, secured unemployment insurance, and orga¬ nized two banks. He served in various New Deal labour organizations, including the National Recovery Administration. Hillman also helped found the Congress of Industrial Organizations and was active in it until his death. See also AFL-CIO; John L. Lewis.

Hillquit, Morris orig. Morris Hillkowitz (b. Aug. 1, 1869, Riga, Latvia—d. Oct. 7, 1933, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. socialist leader. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1886, joined the Socialist Labor Party, and helped found the United Hebrew Trades in 1888. When the party split, he led a moderate faction to help form the Social Democratic Party, which in 1901 became the Socialist Party. As the party’s chief theoretician, he defined its position of pacifism during World War I and defended many socialists in court. He was twice the Socialist Party’s unsuccessful can¬ didate for mayor of New York (1917, 1932).

Hilton, Conrad (Nicholson) (b. Dec. 25, 1887, San Antonio, N.M., U.S.—d. Jan. 3,1979, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. businessman, founder of one of the world’s largest hotel organizations. As a boy he helped his father turn the family’s adobe house into an inn for traveling salesmen. After his father’s death in 1918 he bought several hotels in Texas, and by 1939 he was building, leasing, and buying hotels in California, New York, Illinois, and elsewhere. In 1946 the Hilton Hotels Corp. was organized; in 1948, as the business expanded overseas, the company was renamed Hilton Inter¬ national Co. Later diversification included a credit card company and a car- rental firm. His son Barron succeeded him as president in 1966.

Hilton, James (Glen Trevor) (b. Sept. 9, 1900, Leigh, Lancashire, Eng.—d. Dec. 20, 1954, Long Beach, Calif., U.S.) British novelist. Edu¬ cated at Cambridge University, he later wrote numerous novels but is principally remembered for three best-selling works that led to popular films: Lost Horizon (1933; film, 1937), Good-Bye Mr. Chips (1934; film, 1939), and Random Harvest (1941; film, 1942). He eventually moved to California to work as a screenwriter.

Himachal Pradesh Mio-'ma-chol-pro-'deslA State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 6,077,248), northern India. Located in the western Himalayas, it is bor¬ dered by Tibet (China) and the states of Uttaranchal, Haryana, Punjab, and Jammu and Kashmir and covers an area of 21,495 sq mi (55,673 sq km); its capital is Shimla. The area’s history dates back to the Vedic period; later the Aryans assimilated the indigenous peoples. It was exposed to succes¬ sive invasions through the centuries, ending with British domination in the 19th century. Between 1948 and the achievement of statehood in 1971, the state underwent various changes in size and administrative status. It is one of the least urbanized states in India, and most of the people are subsistence-level farmers.

Himalayas ^hi-mo-Ta-oz, hi-'ma-b-yozV or Himalaya Mountain system, southern Asia. It forms a barrier between the Plateau of Tibet to the north and the plains of the Indian subcontinent to the south. It con¬ stitutes the greatest mountain system on Earth and includes more than 110 peaks rising to elevations above 24,000 ft (7,300 m), including Mount Everest. The system extends some 1,550 mi (2,500 km) from east to west and covers about 230,000 sq mi (595,000 sq km). It is traditionally divided into four parallel ranges: from north to south, the Tethys (or Tibetan) Himalayas, the Great Himalayas (including the major peaks), the Lesser Himalayas (including peaks of 12,000-15,000 ft [3,700-4,500 m]), and the Outer Himalayas (including the lowest peaks). Between the eastern and western extremities of the broad Himalayan arc lie several Indian states and the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. It acts as a great climatic divide, causing heavy rain and snow on the Indian side but aridity in Tibet,

and represents at many points a virtually impassable barrier, even by air. The mountains’ glaciers and snows are the source of 19 major rivers, including the Indus, Ganges (Ganga), and Brahmaputra.

Himera Vhi-m9-r9\ Ancient Greek city, northern coast of Sicily. It was founded c. 649 bc by Syracusan exiles and Chalcidian inhabitants of Zan- cle (see Messina). An unsuccessful Carthaginian invasion of Sicily ended in the death of Hamilcar at the Battle of Himera in 480 bc. It was finally destroyed in 409 bc by Hamilcar’s grandson Hannibal. Its only visible relic is a Doric temple (480 bc); many of its lion-head spouts are exhibited in the Palermo Museum.

Himmler, Heinrich (b. Oct. 7, 1900, Munich, Ger.—d. May 23, 1945, Liineburg) German Nazi police administrator who became the sec¬ ond most powerful man in the Third Reich. He joined the Nazi Party in 1925 and rose to become head of Adolf Hitler’s SS. He was put in com¬ mand of most German police units after 1933, taking charge of the Gestapo in 1934, and established the Third Reich’s first concentration camp, at Dachau. He soon built the SS into a powerful network of state terror, and by 1936 he commanded all the Reich’s police forces. In World War II he expanded the Waffen-SS (Armed SS) until it rivaled the army; after 1941 he organized the death camps in eastern Europe. Shunted aside by Hitler’s entourage, Him¬ mler, hoping to succeed Hitler, had negotiations with the Allies in the final months of the war over Germa¬ ny’s surrender or its alliance with the Western Allies against the Soviet Union. Hitler ordered his arrest, but when he attempted to escape he was captured by the British and committed suicide by taking poison.

Hims \'hims\ or Homs \'homs\ ancient Emesa City (pop., 2004 est.: 800,400), central Syria. It is located near the Orontes River. As Emesa, it contained a large temple to the sun god El Gebal and was the birthplace of the priest-king Elagabalus, who became Roman emperor in ad 218. The emperor Aurelian defeated Queen Zenobia of Palmyra there in 272. It was taken in 636 by the Muslims, who renamed it Hims. In 1516 it passed into Ottoman hands, where it remained (except for a brief period of Egyptian control in the 1830s) until the creation of Syria after World War I (1914— 18). Hims is a thriving agricultural market centre and has oil and sugar refineries. It is the central link between the interior cities and the Medi¬ terranean Sea coast.

Hinayana V.he-no-'ya-noV Name given to the more conservative schools of Buddhism. A Sanskrit word meaning “Lesser Vehicle” (because it is concerned with the individual’s salvation), it was first applied pejoratively to the established Buddhist schools by followers of the more liberal Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle,” because it is concerned with universal sal¬ vation) tradition. The ancient Hinayana schools continued to prosper after the rise of the Mahayana in the 1st century ad, but Theravada Buddhism was the only Hinayana school that maintained a strong position after the collapse of Indian Buddhism in the 13th century.

Hincmar of Reims \ , hiqk-,mar... , remz\ (b. c. 806, northern France?—d. Dec. 21, 882, Epernay, near Reims) French archbishop and theologian. The most influential churchman of the 9th century, he advised the Carolingian emperors Louis I and Charles II and was chosen archbishop of Reims in 845. He maintained his influence despite the hostility of Lothar I, whose divorce Hincmar staunchly opposed, and secured the suc¬ cession of Charles to the throne of Lotharingia. Hincmar also rallied the church to the defense of Charles when Louis the German invaded the kingdom in 858. His theological writings included treatises on predesti¬ nation, in which he argued that God does not damn a sinner in advance, and a defense of the Christian opposition to divorce.

Hindemith Vhin-do-.mitV, Paul (b. Nov. 16, 1895, Hanau, near Frank¬ furt am Main, German Empire—d. Dec. 28, 1963, Frankfurt am Main, W.Ger.) German composer. His talent was noticed early, and he received

Himmler.

CAMERA PRESS

Hindenburg ► Hindustan I 877

thorough training on viola, violin, clarinet, and piano. He became con- certmaster of the Frankfurt Opera at age 20, and his compositions began drawing attention at new-music festivals. Because his wife was Jewish and his music was considered “degenerate” by the Nazis, he left Germany in 1938, settling in the U.S. in 1940. Advocating Gebrauchsmusik (“use¬ ful music”), he wrote solo sonatas and concertos for many of the standard orchestral instruments. Mathis der Maler (1935) is the best known of his six operas; the symphony based on it, and the Symphonic Metamorpho¬ sis on Themes of Weber (1943), are widely performed.

Hindenburg, Paul von in full Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hin¬ denburg (b. Oct. 2, 1847, Posen,

Prussia—d. Aug. 2, 1934, Neudeck,

Ger.) German field marshal and sec¬ ond president (1925-34) of the Weimar Republic. Born to an aristo¬ cratic family, he retired from the Prussian army as a general in 1911.

Recalled to duty in World War I, he commanded German forces in East Prussia and became a national hero after the Battle of Tannenberg (1914).

With Erich Ludendorff as his chief aide, he nominally commanded all German forces until the end of the war, then retired again in 1919. Sup¬ ported by conservative groups, he was elected president of Germany in 1925. When the Great Depression led to a political crisis, he was pressured to make the government more inde¬ pendent of parliamentary controls. In 1930 he allowed Chancellor Heinrich Bruning to dissolve the Reichstag, and in the new elections the Nazi Party emerged as the second largest party. In 1932 Hindenburg was reelected president by opponents of the Nazis; however, his advisers considered the Nazis useful, and in 1933 he was persuaded to appoint Adolf Hitler chancellor.

Hindenburg disaster Explosion of the dirigible Hindenburg, the largest rigid airship ever constructed. Launched in 1936 in Germany, it started the first commercial air service across the North Atlantic and made 10 successful round trips. On May 6, 1937, as it was landing in Lake- hurst, N.J., U.S., its hydrogen gas burst into flames, destroying the air¬ ship and killing 36 of the 97 persons aboard. The disaster, recorded on film and phonograph disk, effectively ended the use of rigid airships in commercial transportation.

Hindi language Indo-Aryan ianguage of India, spoken or understood by more than 30% of the country’s population. Modern Standard Hindi is a lingua franca (as well as native language) of millions of people in North India and the official language of the Indian Union. It is effectively a con¬ tinuation of Hindustani, which developed from Khari Boli, the speech of certain classes and districts in Delhi affiliated with the Mughal court in the 16th—18th centuries. A heavily Persianized variant of Khari Boli used by Muslim authors formed the basis for Urdu. Hindustani was codified by the British at Fort William College in Calcutta (now Kolkata). There Hindu intellectuals promoted a Sanskritized form of Hindustani (see Sanskrit lan¬ guage) written in the Devanagari script (see Indic writing systems) in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; it became the progenitor of modem literary Hindi as used by Hindu authors. During the Indian independence move¬ ment, Hindustani was regarded as a national unifying factor, but after the partition in 1947 this attitude changed, and the name has practically dropped from use in favour of either Hindi or Urdu. Linguists, particularly George Abraham Grierson, have also used the term Hindi to refer collec¬ tively to all the dialects and regional literary languages of the northern Indian plain. Hindi has drastically simplified the complex grammar of Old Indo-Aryan while preserving certain phonetic features.

Hindu-Arabic numerals Set of 10 symbols—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0—that represent numbers in the decimal number system. They originated in India in the 6th or 7th century and were introduced to Europe through Arab mathematicians around the 12th century (see al-Khwarizmi). They represented a profound break with previous methods of counting, such as the abacus, and paved the way for the development of algebra.

Hindu Kush Vhin-du-'kush\ Latin Caucasus Indicus Mountain sys¬ tem, south-central Asia. Some 500 mi (800 km) long, it runs from the Pamirs in the east near the Pakistan-China border through Pakistan to western Afghanistan. The system forms a drainage divide between the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) valley to the northwest and the Indus River valley to the southeast. Its passes have historically been of great military significance, providing access to the northern plains of the Indian subcontinent. It includes about two dozen summits above 23,000 ft (7,000 m), including the highest, Tirich Mir, at 25,230 ft (7,690 m).

Hinduism Oldest of the world’s major religions. It evolved from the Vedic religion of ancient India. The major branches of Hinduism are Vaish- navism and Shaivism, each of which includes many different sects. Though the various sects each rely on their own set of scriptures, they all revere the ancient Vedas, which were brought to India by Aryan invaders after 1200 bce. The philosophical Vedic texts called the Upanishads explored the search for knowledge that would allow mankind to escape the cycle of reincarnation. Fundamental to Hinduism is the belief in a cosmic prin¬ ciple of ultimate reality called Brahman and its identity with the individual soul, or atman. All creatures go through a cycle of rebirth, or samsara, which can be broken only by spiritual self-realization, after which libera¬ tion, or moksha, is attained. The principle of karma determines a being’s status within the cycle of rebirth. The greatest Hindu deities are Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The numerous other Hindu gods are mostly viewed as incarnations or epiphanies of the main deities, though some are survivors of the pre-Aryan era. The major sources of classical mythology are the Mahabharata (which includes the Bhagavadgita, the most important reli¬ gious text of Hinduism), the Ramayana, and the Puranas. The hierarchi¬ cal social structure of the caste system is also important in Hinduism; it is supported by the principle of dharma. In the 20th century Hinduism blended with Indian nationalism to become a powerful political force in Indian politics. In the early 21st century there were more than 850 mil¬ lion Hindus worldwide.

Major Hindu Holidays

Date

Name

Significance

Caitra (Mar.-Apr.) Shukla ("waxing fortnight") 9

Vaishakha (Apr.-May) Jyaistha (May-June)

Ramanavami ("ninth of Rama")

celebrates the birth of Rama

Asadha (June-July)

Rathayatra ("pilgrimage

famous Jagannatha festival

Sh. 2