Britannica Concise 2005

Tufted titmouse (Parus bicolor ).

DAN SUDIA-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Titchener ► tlachtli I 1915

duction), titanium dioxide (extensively used as a pigment— with the great¬ est hiding power of all white pigments —in paints, enamels, and lacquers), and titanium tetrachloride (used in skywriting, smoke screens, and as a catalyst).

Titchener, Edward Bradford (b. Jan. 11, 1867, Chichester, Sussex, Eng.—d. Aug. 3, 1927, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.) British-U.S. psychologist. Trained in Leipzig under Wilhelm Wundt, he later taught at Cornell Uni¬ versity (1892-1927). He helped establish experimental psychology in the U.S., and he also became the foremost proponent of structural psychol¬ ogy, a field concerned with the components and arrangement of mental states and processes. His principal work is Experimental Psychology

(1901-05).

tithe Contribution of a tenth of one’s income for religious purposes. The practice of tithing was established in the Hebrew scriptures and was adopted by the Western Christian church. It was enjoined by eccesiasti- cal law from the 6th century and enforced in Europe by secular law from the 8th century. After the Reformation, tithes continued to be imposed for the benefit of both the Protestant and Roman Catholic churches. Tithes were eventually repealed in France (1789), Ireland (1871), Italy (1887), and England (1936). In Germany support for churches is collected through the personal income tax and distributed according to the individual’s reli¬ gious affiliation. Tithing was never part of U.S. law, but members of cer¬ tain churches (e.g., the Mormons) are required to tithe, and members of other churches may tithe voluntarily. Tithing was never accepted by the Eastern Orthodox churches.

Titian \'ti-shon\ orig. Tiziano Vecellio (b. 1488/90, Pieve di Cadore, Republic of Venice—d. Aug. 27, 1576, Venice) Italian painter active in Venice. As a young man he was taught by the Bellini family and worked closely with Giorgione. His early works are so similar in style to Gior¬ gione’s as to be indistinguishable, but soon after Giorgione’s early death Titian established himself as the leading painter of the Republic of Ven¬ ice. Among his most important religious paintings is the revolutionary and monumental Assumption (1516-18) for Santa Maria dei Frari, in which the Virgin ascends to heaven in a blaze of colour accompanied by a semi¬ circle of angels. Titian was also interested in mythological themes, and his many depictions of Venus display his work’s sheer beauty and inher¬ ent eroticism. Bacchus and Ariadne (1520-23), with its pagan abandon, is one of the greatest works of Renaissance art. Titian was sought after for his psychologically penetrating portraits, which include portrayals of leading Italian aristocrats, religious figures, and Emperor Charles V. He reached the height of his powers in The Rape ofEuropa (c. 1559-62), one of several paintings done for Philip II of Spain. He was recognized as supremely gifted in his lifetime, and his reputation has never declined.

Titicaca V.te-te-'ka-kaV Lake South American lake, the world’s highest lake navigable to large vessels. Located in the Altiplano, a high basin of the Andes Mountains, and on the border between Peru and Bolivia, it lies at an elevation of about 12,500 ft (3,810 m). The second largest lake in South America, it covers some 3,200 sq mi (8,300 sq km) and is 120 mi (190 km) long by 50 mi (80 km) wide. A narrow strait joins the lake’s two bodies of water, which have 41 islands, some densely populated. The remains of one of the oldest known American civilizations have been found in the area. Temple ruins on Titicaca Island mark the spot where, according to legend, the founders of the Inca were sent down to earth by the sun.

Tito \'te-to\, Josip Broz orig. Josip Broz (b. May 7, 1892, Kum- rovec, near Zagreb, Croatia, Austria-Hungary—d. May 4, 1980, Lju¬ bljana, Yugos.) Yugoslav politician, premier (1945-53), and president (1953-80). Born to a peasant family, he fought in the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I and was captured by the Russians in 1915. While in Russia, he took part in the July Days demonstrations (1917) and joined the Bolsheviks. In 1920 he returned to Croatia, where he became a local leader of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. He rose in the party hierarchy, interrupted by a prison term (1928-34), to become its secretary-general in 1939. In World War II, Tito (a pseudonym he adopted about 1935) proved an effective leader of Yugoslav Partisans. As marshal from 1943, he strengthened communist control of Yugoslavia. As premier and presi¬ dent, he developed an independent form of socialist rule in defiance of the Soviet Union, pursued a policy of nonalignment, built ties with other nonaligned states, and improved relations with the Western powers. Within Yugoslavia, he established a system of “symmetrical federalism” (1974) that created equality among the six republics and Serbia’s autono¬ mous provinces (including Kosovo), while maintaining tight control to

prevent separatist movements. After his death, resentment of Serbian domination led gradually to a dissolution of the federal system.

Titograd See Podgorica

titration Ui-'tra-shonX Process of chemical analysis in which the quan¬ tity of some constituent of a dissolved sample is determined by adding an exactly measured quantity of another dissolved substance with which it reacts in a definite, known proportion. The solution of known concen¬ tration is gradually added to the unknown solution from a burette (a long measuring tube with a valve at the bottom) until the equivalence point (end point) is reached. The amount of the unknown substance can then be calculated. The equivalence point is determined by a detectable change, for instance, of colour in an indicator substance (e.g., litmus) or in an elec¬ trical property. Reactions used in titration include acid-base reactions, pre¬ cipitations (see solution), formation of complexes, and oxidation-reduction reactions. See also pH.

Titus in full Titus Vespasianus Augustus orig. Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. Dec. 30, ad 39—d. Sept. 13, 81) Roman emperor (79-81). He commanded a Roman legion in Judaea under his father, Ves¬ pasian. After Vespasian became emperor (69), he gave Titus full command in Judaea, whereupon Titus captured and destroyed Jerusalem (70). He later took charge of the empire’s general military operations. As emperor he developed goodwill in Rome for his extravagant spending; his projects included the completion of the Colosseum. He died suddenly, probably from natural causes, though there were rumours that he was poisoned by Domitian.

Tiv People living along the Benue River in Nigeria. They number more than 2.5 million and speak a Benue-Congo language of the Niger-Congo family. The Tiv cultivate yams, millet, and sorghum. A family occupies a cluster of round huts; brothers usually live next to one another. Some Tiv have converted to Christianity, and a few have adopted Islam, but the tra¬ ditional religion based on a creator-god remains strong.

Tivoli \'te-vd-\e\ ancient T \bur Town (pop., 2001 prelim.: 46,364), Lazio, central Italy. The site has been occupied continuously since prehistoric times. Originally an independent member of the Latin League and a rival of nearby Rome, Tivoli came under Roman influence in the 4th century bc. It received Roman citizenship in 90 bc and attained prosperity as a summer resort under the early empire. Many wealthy Romans built vil¬ las and erected temples in the vicinity, and the buildings’ remains are among the most impressive to survive from antiquity. They include Hadri¬ an's Villa and the poet Horace’s Sabine farm. Tivoli is also the site of the Villa d’Este (begun ad 1550), with its magnificent gardens and unrivaled Renaissance fountains.

Tiwanaku \,te-a-wa-'na-ko\ or Tiwanacu Spanish Tiahuanaco

Major pre-Columbian Andean civilization known from the ruins of the same name near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. The Tiwan¬ aku civilization spread throughout large areas of Bolivia and Peru and parts of Argentina and Chile. The main site’s earliest remains may date from c. 200 bc-c. ad 200 and its major buildings from c. ad 600 to c. 1000. Surviving artifacts include stelae, decorated pottery, and the famous Gateway of the Sun (Puerta del Sol), an ornamented doorway carved from a massive stone slab. Much of the culture’s success derived from its raised-field farming technique, in which elevated planting surfaces were separated by canals that retained the sun’s heat during the cold nights and kept the crops from freezing. Algae that grew in the canals was used for fertilizer. The Tiwanaku culture vanished by 1200.

tjurunga or churinga Uyu-'raq-goX In native Australian religion, a ritual object that is a representation or manifestation of a mythical being. They are symbols of communication between humans and the Dreaming. Most tjurunga are used in men’s secret and sacred rituals, though some small objects figure in women’s rituals and still smaller objects in men’s love magic. At initiation, a boy is introduced to the rituals and tjurunga of his local descent group. Later, he receives his own tjurunga, with which he has a personal bond. At a person’s death, the tjurunga is sometimes buried with the corpse.

tlachtli Vtlach-tle\ Ball court or field used for the ritual ball game ollama, played throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Some myths mention the game as a symbolic contest between day and night deities. The object of the game, played in teams, was to use elbows, knees, and hips to drive the ball through the opponent’s goal. The game was accompanied by heavy betting. It was extremely violent, and severe injuries were frequent,

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1916 I Tlaloc ► Tobit

despite the players’ protective clothing. Losing players were apparently sometimes sacrificed, and the ball may sometimes have consisted of a human head wrapped in latex.

Tlaloc Vtla-lokA Aztec rain god, highly revered and feared for his ability to bestow or withhold prosperity. Five of the 18 months of the ritual year were dedicated to him, and children were sacrificed to him during two of the months. He could send out rain, provoke drought and hunger, and cause lightning and hurricanes. Dropsy, leprosy, and rheumatism were said to be caused by Tlaloc and his fellow deities. Those who died of such illnesses, or who had been killed by lightning, were granted an eternal and blissful life in his paradise, Tlalocan.

Tlaxcala in full Tlaxcala de Xicohtencatl Town (pop., 2000: 73,213), capital of Tlaxcala state, Mexico. It is located in a mountainous region at the foot of La Malinche volcano. Settled by a Nahua people around the 14th century, it vied for power in the 15 th-16th century with the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). Though the inhab¬ itants initially opposed HernAn Cortes, they later became his allies and aided him in his defeat of Azetec leader Montezuma II. It was a refuge for the Spaniards when they were driven out of Tenochtitlan in 1520. Cortes established the first Christian church (San Francisco) in the Americas there in 1521. The sanctuary of Our Lady of Ocotlan and archaeological ruins are nearby.

Tlaxcala \tla-'ska-la\ State (pop., 2000: 962,646), central Mexico. The smallest Mexican state, it consists largely of plateau and covers 1,551 sq mi (4,016 sq km); the capital is Tlaxcala town. It occupies roughly the same area as the Indian principality of Tlaxcala, which was the main Indian ally of Hernan Cortes in his conquest of Mexico. Almost exclu¬ sively agricultural, it produces cereals, raises both dairy cows and fight¬ ing bulls, and has numerous handicrafts, notably the weaving of serapes and woolen cloth.

Tlazolteotl \ ,tla-sol-'te-o-t 3 l\ Important and complex Aztec earth- mother goddess. She was known in four guises, each associated with a different stage in life. As a young woman, she was a carefree temptress. In her second form, she was the destructive goddess of gambling and uncertainty. In middle age, she was able to absorb human wrongdoing. In her final manifestation, she was a terrifying hag preying on youths. She was thought to provoke carnal lust and illicit sexual activity, but she could also grant absolution and remove corruption from the world by eating sexual filth.

Tlingit Vtliq-gotX Northernmost group of Northwest Coast Indian peoples who inhabit the islands and coast of southern Alaska, U.S. The Tlingit language is thought to be related to Athabaskan. The basic social unit was the lineage, based on maternal lines of descent; clans and larger units (moieties) were also important. Each lineage had its own chief, owned and exploited lands of economic importance, and functioned as a ceremo¬ nial unit. The economy was based on salmon fishing, though sea and land mammals were also hunted. Wood, often decorated with stylized designs, was used for houses, totem poles, canoes, dishes, and other objects. The potlatch marked a cycle of rituals mourning the death of a chief. The Tlin¬ git number about 20,000.

TM See Transcendental Meditation

TNT in full trinitrotoluene \ 1 tri- l ni-tro-'tal-y3- l wen\ Pale yellow, solid organic compound made by adding nitrate (—N0 2 ) groups to toluene. Because TNT melts below the boiling point of water but explodes only above 464 °F (240 °C), it can safely be melted and poured into casings. It is relatively insensitive to shock and, for practical purposes, cannot be exploded without a detonator, making it the preferred chemical explosive, used in munitions and for demolition.

To-wang Vto-'wagX or Togtokhtor Vtog-.tok-'turX (fl. 19th century) Mongolian prince who opposed Manchu rule and supported Mongolia’s independence from China. Concerned with education, he set up a primary school open to commoners, had Buddhist scriptures translated into Mon¬ gol, and codified practical advice for herdspeople in a book he circulated among them. To diversify the economy, he encouraged agriculture and the production of textiles and woolen goods. His plan to build a central temple to replace 11 local temples turned his people against him; higher authorities decided in his favour, but the temple project was canceled.

toad Any member of 26 genera (order Anura) of mainly terrestrial, noc¬ turnal, tailless amphibians. Toads have a squat body, short legs, external

fertilization, and teeth in the upper jaw. They eat insects or small ani¬ mals. The more than 300 species of true toads ( Bufo ) are found almost worldwide. They are 1-10 in. (2-25 cm) long and have thick, dry, often warty skin. Poison secreted by glands on the back and warts irritates the eyes and mucous membranes of predators. Some species’ poison can paralyze or kill animals as large as dogs, but toads do not cause warts.

Toads reproduce by laying in water two long jelly tubes containing 600- 30,000 eggs. The genus Nec- tophrynoides contains the only anurans that bear live young. See also frog, horned toad.

toadfish Any of about 45 species (family Batrachoididae) of heavy¬ bodied, carnivorous, bottom-living fishes, found chiefly in the New World and mostly in warm seas.

Toadfishes, up to 16 in. (40 cm) long, have a broad, flattened head, a large mouth, strong teeth, and small scales (if any). Most produce grunting or croaking sounds. The oyster toadfish (Opsanus tau ) is common in shallow eastern North American coastal waters. Venomous toadfishes (genera Thalassophryne and Daector ), of Central and South America, have venom-injecting spines on their dorsal fins and gill covers. Midshipmen (genus Porichthys), shallow-water American fishes, have rows of 600- 840 buttonlike light organs along the body.

toadflax See butter-and-eggs

toadstool See mushroom

Toba dynasty See Northern Wei dynasty

tobacco Any of numerous species of plants in the genus Nicotiana, or the cured leaves of several of the species, used after processing in vari¬ ous ways for smoking, snuffing, chewing, and extracting of nicotine. Native to South America, Mexico, and the West Indies, common tobacco (N. tabacum ) grows 4-6 ft (1-2 m) high and bears usually pink flowers and huge leaves, as long as 2-3 ft (0.6-1 m) and about half as wide. When Christopher Columbus reached the Americas, he reported natives using tobacco as it is used today, as well as in religious ceremonies. Believed to have medicinal properties, tobacco was introduced into Europe and the rest of the world, becoming the chief commodity that British colonists exchanged for European manufactured articles. Awareness of the numer¬ ous serious health risks posed by tobacco, including various cancers and a range of respiratory diseases, has led to campaigns against its use, but the number of tobacco users worldwide continues to rise. The World Health Organization estimates that smoking now causes three million deaths annually and within two decades will cause more deaths than any single disease.

Tobago See Trinidad and Tobago

Tobey, Mark (b. Dec. 11, 1890, Centerville, Wis., U.S.—d. April 24, 1976, Basel, Switz.) U.S. painter. He studied at the Art Institute of Chi¬ cago. In 1918 he converted to the Baha’i religion and his work became inspired by Asian art and thought. In the 1930s he achieved notoriety with his “white writing” paintings, consisting of a web of calligraphic marks painted in white on a gray or coloured ground (e.g., Broadway, 1936), which soon displaced his representational work. His style is distinguished by his use of the small format and a refined execution in watercolour, tempera, or pastel. In the 1950s he exerted much influence abroad, espe¬ cially on French Tachism.

Tobit Vto-bot\ Main character in the Bible’s apocryphal book of Tobit. Tobit, a pious Jew living in exile in Nineveh, gives alms and buries the dead in accordance with Hebrew law but is struck blind in spite of his good works. Sarah, daughter of a close relative, has had seven husbands, each of whom was killed by a demon on their wedding night. The two pray for

American toad (Bufo americanus).

GEORGE PORTER-THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Oyster toadfish (Opsanus tau).

ROMAN VISHNIAC

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tobogganing ► Togliatti I 1917

deliverance, and the angel Raphael intercedes for them. Tobit regains his sight, and Sarah marries Tobit’s son Tobias. The book is an effort to rec¬ oncile the evil in the world with God’s justice. See also Apocrypha.

tobogganing Sport of sliding down a snow-covered hill on a tobog¬ gan, a long, flat-bottomed sled made of thin boards curved up at the front end. The word is of Algonquian origin and probably refers to a towing sled. Tobogganing as a sport appears to have originated on the slopes of Mount Royal in Montreal in the late 19th century. In the early 20th cen¬ tury many tobogganing chutes (3-ft-wide wood- or ice-sided channels) were built.

Tobruk ancient Antipyrgos Port city (pop., latest est.: 110,000), northeastern Libya. The site of an ancient Greek agricultural colony, it later had a Roman fortress guarding the frontier of Cyrenaica. For centu¬ ries it served as a way station on the coastal caravan route. An Italian military post by 1911, it was the scene of prolonged fighting during World War II (see North Africa campaigns). The British captured it from the Ital¬ ians in 1941; it fell to a German siege in 1942 but was recaptured by the British the same year. Rebuilt after the war, it was expanded in the 1960s to include a port terminal linked by pipeline to the Sarlr oil field.

Tocantins \,to-ka n -'te n s\ River River, east-central and northeastern Bra¬ zil. It rises in several headstreams, including the Parana River, and flows north and west to join the Araguaia River. It again turns north and flows into the ParA River after a course of 1,677 mi (2,699 km). Frequently inter¬ rupted by rapids and waterfalls, it is mainly unnavigable.

Tocharian \to-'kar-e-on\ languages or Tokharian languages

Two extinct Indo-European languages, Tocharian A and Tocharian B, for¬ merly spoken in the Tarim River Basin in China. Documents date back to ad 500-700. Tocharian literature, written in a northern Indian syllabary derived from Brahmi (see Indic writing systems), was preserved in Bud¬ dhist monasteries. Spoken at the eastern frontier of the Indo-European world, Tocharian shows the influence of Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages but seems closer to western Indo-European languages in vocabulary and grammar.

tocopherol See vitamin E

Tocqueville Vtok-.vil, tok-'vel\, Alexis (-Charles-Henri- Maurice Clerel) de (b. July 29,

1805, Paris, France—d. April 16,

1859, Cannes) French political sci¬ entist, historian, and politician. Born into an aristocratic family, he entered government service by choice. After the July Revolution of 1830, his position became precarious because of his family’s ties to the ousted king, and he undertook a nine-month study trip to the U.S. with his friend Gustave de Beaumont. Out of it came his best-known work, Democ¬ racy in America , 4 vol. (1835—40), a highly perceptive and prescient analysis of the American political and social system, as well as of the vitality, excesses, and potential future of democracy, with attention to the situation in France. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1839 and held various political offices after the Revolution of 1848.

The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856), a pessimistic analysis of French political tendencies, was the first volume of his unfinished study of the French Revolution.

Tddai Temple Vto-,dI\ Japanese Todai-ji Monumental temple of the Kegon sect of Japanese Buddhism, located in Nara, Japan. The main buildings were constructed in 745-752 under the emperor Shomu, mark¬ ing the adoption of Buddhism as a state religion. The Great Buddha Hall, built within a 2-sq-mi (5-sq-km) enclosure, measured about 288 by 169 ft (88 by 52 m) and, as restored today, is the largest wooden building in the world. The 53-ft (16-m) Great Sun Buddha was installed in 752. The

Shosoin is a repository for more than 9,000 works of art from the Nara period and more than 600 personal effects of Shomu.

Todos los Santos, Lake Lake, south-central Chile. It is located north of Puerto Montt. With neighbouring Lake Llanquihue, it is the best-known of Chilean lakes and is in a popular resort area.

tofu Soft, bland, custardlike food product made from soybeans. Believed to date from China’s Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220), tofu is today an impor¬ tant source of protein in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is made from dried soybeans that are soaked in water, crushed, and boiled to pro¬ duce a solid pulp and liquid soy “milk.” Coagulants are then added to the milk to separate the curds from the whey. The resulting soft cakes are cut into squares and stored in water.

toga Loose, draped outer garment adopted by the Romans from the Etrus¬ cans. It was originally worn by both sexes of all classes, but was gradu¬ ally abandoned by women, then by labourers, and finally by patricians, but throughout the history of the empire it remained the state dress, the garment of the emperor and high officials. Made from an oval piece of fabric, the toga had voluminous folds that made activity difficult and thus became the distinctive garment of the upper classes. The colour of the toga worn depended on class, age, and the character of such special events as mourning and triumphs.

togavirus \,to-g3-'vi-r3s\ Any of three genera of arboviruses: Alphavi- rus, Rubivirus (which causes rubella), and Pestivirus (which infects only animals). Some Alphavi- rus species produce a severe equine encephalitis that has a mortality rate of up to 90% in horses and 10% in humans.

toggle mechanism Combina¬ tion of solid, usually metallic links (bars), connected by pin (hinge) joints arranged so that a small force applied at one point can create a much larger force at another point. See also LINKAGE.

Toghril Beg \t6g-'rel-'beg\ (b. c. 990—d. Sept. 4, 1063, Rayy, Iran) Founder of the SeuOq dynasty. He and his brother Chagri took refuge in Khwarezm in Central Asia after being defeated by MahmOd of Ghazna. Later they entered Khorasan (northeastern Iran), where they gradually built a power base, returning to defeat Mahmud’s son (1040). Chagri took over Khorasan, and Toghri'1 prepared to conquer the rest of Iran. In the 1040s he extended his authority to Rayy, Hamadan, and Esfahan, and in 1055 he entered Baghdad, where he had been commissioned by the caliph of the ‘Abbasid dynasty to overthrow the ShTite Fajimid dynasty. In 1060 Toghri'1 crushed a rebellion in Baghdad.

Toghto Vt6g-,to\ (fl. 1340-55, China) High government official during the later years of China’s Yuan dynasty (1206-1368). He followed his uncle as minister of the right (1340-44) and favoured a centralized approach to government. Under him, positions that had been closed to the Chinese were reopened, many literati returned to the capital, and the Chi¬ nese examination system was restored. He was called back to office for another term (1349-55), during which time he oversaw projects to reroute the Huang He (Yellow River) and to develop an apparatus for quelling the many popular uprisings of the 1350s.

Togliatti \tol-'ya-te\, Palmiro (b. March 26, 1893, Genoa—d. Aug. 21, 1964, Yalta, Ukraine, U.S.S.R.) Italian communist leader. After serv¬ ing in World War I, in 1919 he helped found the left-wing weekly L'Ordine Nuovo (“New Order”), which became a rallying point for the breakaway communist wing of the Socialist Party (1921). He edited the Communist Party newspaper and was a member of the party’s central committee from 1924. He was in Moscow when the party was banned in Italy (1926); he remained in exile and became a member of the Comin¬ tern secretariat (1935). He returned to Italy in 1944 and served in a coa-

Alexis de Tocqueville, detail of an oil painting by T. Chasseriau; in the Ver¬ sailles Museum.

H. ROGER-VIOLLET

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1918 I Togo ► Tokugawa period

lition government as vice premier (1945). He advocated a national, democratically oriented form of communism and made the Italian Com¬ munist Party the largest in western Europe. See also Democratic Party of the Left.

Togo officially Togolese Republic Republic, western Africa. Area: 21,925 sq mi (56,785 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 5,400,000. Capital: Lome. It has some 30 ethnic groups; the Ewe is the largest. Languages:

French (official), Ewe, other indigenous languages. Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic), traditional beliefs, Islam.

Currency: CFA franc. Togo occupies a strip of land about 70 mi (115 km) wide that

extends about 320 mi (515 km) inland from the Gulf of Guinea. Regions include a swampy coastal plain, a northern savanna, and a central moun¬ tain range. The developing economy is based largely on agriculture. Chief crops are cassava, yams, com, cotton, coffee, and cocoa. It is one of the world’s leading producers of phosphates; food products, beverages, and cement are also important. Togo is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, supported by the military, and the head of government is the prime minister. Until 1884 what is now Togo was an intermediate zone between the states of Asante and Dahomey, and its various ethnic groups lived in general isolation from each other. In 1884 it became part of the Togoland German protectorate, which was occupied by British and French forces in 1914. In 1922 the League of Nations assigned eastern Togoland to France and the western portion to Britain. In 1946 the British and French governments placed the territories under UN trusteeship. Ten years later British Togoland was incorporated into the Gold Coast, and French Togoland became an autonomous republic within the French Union. Togo gained independence in 1960. It suspended its constitution from 1967 to 1980. A constitution providing for multi¬ party government was approved in 1992, but the political situation remained unstable.

Togoland Former German protectorate, western Africa. Now divided between Togo and Ghana, it covered an area between the British Gold Coast colony and French Dahomey (now Benin). It was inhabited by a mixture of Ewe and other peoples. Its coastal area became a political unit of Germany in 1884; hinterland boundaries were established in 1897. In 1914 it was captured by Anglo-French forces and later divided into two administrative zones. The British zone was placed under control of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), with which it merged in 1957. The French zone became the independent Republic of Togo in 1960. Lingering sentiment for the reunification of Togoland, especially among Ewe people in Ghana, has occasionally strained relations between Togo and Ghana since inde¬ pendence.

Togtokhtor See To-wang

Tojo Hideki Vto-jo-he-'da-keX (b. Dec. 30, 1884, Tokyo, Japan—d. Dec. 23, 1948, Tokyo) Army general and prime minister of Japan (1941-44) during most of World War II. Under his direction, great victories were initially scored throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific, but prolonged reverses in the Pacific and the successful U.S. invasion of the Mariana Islands resulted in his removal from office in 1944. He attempted suicide after Japan’s surrender but was nursed back to health to be tried and executed as a war criminal. See also war crime.

tokamak Vto-ko-.makX Device used in nuclear-fusion research for mag¬ netic confinement of plasma. It consists of a complex system of magnetic fields that confine the plasma of reactive charged particles in a hollow, doughnut-shaped container. The tokamak (an acronym from the Russian words for toroidal magnetic confinement) was developed in the mid-1960s by Soviet plasma physicists. It produces the highest plasma temperatures, densities, and confinement durations of any confinement device.

Tokelau Vto-ks-.lau \ formerly (1916-46) Union Group Island terri¬ tory (pop., 2000 est.: 1,458) of New Zealand, South Pacific Ocean. Located north of Samoa, Tokelau consists of three coral atolls—Fakaofu, Nukunono, and Atafu—each with numerous low-lying islets. Originally settled by Samoans, the islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th century. In 1863 Peruvian slave raiders abducted many islanders; the abductions and outbreaks of disease reduced the population to about 200. The British established a protectorate there in 1889. Under the name Union Islands they were part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1925, after which New Zealand was granted jurisdiction. The islands became part of New Zealand in 1948. The name Tokelau Islands was adopted in 1946; this was shortened to Tokelau in 1976. In 1994 the powers that had been held by the territory’s New Zealand administrator were transferred to the local government on Tokelau.

Tokharian languages See Tocharian languages

tokonoma V.to-ko-'no-moV In a Japanese room, an alcove with a low platform, used for the display of a flower arrangement and hanging scroll or other art objects. A feature of the shoin-zukuri style, the tokonoma is the focal point and spiritual centre of the interior of almost every tradi¬ tional Japanese house. It finds its origins in the private altar space of the Zen Buddhist monk, which contained a hanging Buddhist scroll and a narrow wooden table with an incense burner and votive candles.

Tokugawa leyasu V.to-ku-'ga-wa-ya-'ya-sCA (b. Jan. 31, 1543, Oka¬ zaki, Japan—d. June 1, 1616, Sumpu) Founder of the Tokugawa shogu- nate (see Tokugawa period) and ruler of Japan (1603-16). Along with Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, leyasu was one of the three unifiers of premodern Japan. He allied himself initially with Nobunaga; that alliance allowed leyasu to survive the vicissitudes of endemic warfare in Japan at that time and to slowly build up his territory. By the 1580s he had become an important daimyo in control of a fertile and populous han (domain). When Nobunaga died, leyasu offered a vow of fealty to Hideyoshi, who was extending his control over southwestern Japan; leyasu, meanwhile, enlarged his vassal force and increased his domain’s productivity. In the 1590s he avoided participating in Hideyoshi’s disastrous expeditions to Korea, instead consolidating his position at home. When Hideyoshi died, leyasu had the largest and most reliable army and the most productive and best-organized domain in Japan; he emerged as victor from the ensu¬ ing power struggle. He confiscated his enemies’ lands and gave them new domains away from Japan’s heartland, much of which became Tokugawa property. He received the title of shogun and two years later passed the title to his son, thereby establishing it as hereditary among the Tokugawa.

Tokugawa period (1603-1867) In Japanese history, period of the military government established by Tokugawa Ieyasu with his assumption of the title of shogun in 1603. The structures leyasu set in place were effective for governing Japan for the next 264 years. He established his capital at Edo (modern Tokyo) and assigned daimyo han (domains) accord¬ ing to their friendliness or hostility toward the Tokugawa: hostile daimyo received domains on the nation’s periphery, while allies and collateral houses were given domains nearer to Edo. Sankin kotai, a system whereby daimyo alternated residency between Edo and their domain, also helped the shogunate keep control of the daimyo. To protect Japan from outside influences, particularly Christian missionaries, a new policy of national seclusion forbade Japanese to travel abroad and forbade foreigners to visit Japan (except for Chinese and Dutch traders, who were allowed to trade

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Tokyo ► toll I 1919

only at the port of Nagasaki). Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s division of society into four fixed classes was preserved, and the samurai (military) class became the civil bureaucrats, its members paid with stipends of rice. Increased travel to Edo and other cities stimulated urban development and urban culture (see Edo culture; Genroku period); the merchant class flourished. By the mid-18th century the shogunate began to suffer financially, as attempts at fiscal reform proved largely unsuccessful. During its last 30 years there were numerous peasant uprisings (see ikki) and evidence of samurai unrest. The shogunate was overthrown by the domains of Sat- suma and ChoshO in 1867. See also Meiji Restoration; Oda Nobunaga.

Tokyo Japanese Tokyo formerly (until 1868) Edo City (pop., 2003 est.: city, 8,083,980; metro, area, 12,310,000), capital of Japan. The coun¬ try’s largest city, it is located in east-central Honshu at the head of Tokyo Bay. The site has been inhabited since ancient times, and the small fish¬ ing village of Edo existed there for centuries before it became the capital of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 (see Tokugawa period). By the 19th century it was one of the largest cities in the world, with a population exceeding 1,000,000. Under the Meiji Restoration, in 1868 it replaced Kyoto as the imperial capital, and Edo was renamed Tokyo (“Eastern Capital”). A massive earthquake in the region in 1923 destroyed most of the city and killed at least 100,000 people, but most of it had been rebuilt by 1930. Much of it was again devastated by U.S. bombing during World War II and had to be reconstructed. The Summer Olympic Games were held there in 1964. Tokyo is the administrative, cultural, financial, commer¬ cial, and educational centre of Japan and the focus of an extensive urban complex that includes Kawasaki and Yokohama. Attractions include the Imperial Palace, encircled by stone-walled moats and broad gardens, and numerous temples and shrines. There are some 150 institutions of higher learning, including the University of Tokyo (1877).

Tokyo, University of State-financed university in Tokyo, the largest and most prestigious university in Japan. It was founded in 1877 and modeled on Western universities. It was destroyed in the great earthquake and fire of 1923 and reorganized following World War II. Today it has faculties of agriculture, economics, education, engineering, law, letters, medicine, pharmacology, and science, as well as a college of arts and sci¬ ences and a graduate school. Among its many research units are centres for the study of molecular and cellular biology, earthquakes, solid-state physics, cosmic radiation, oceanography, and Asian culture.

Tokyo Bay Inlet, western Pacific Ocean. Located off the east-central coast of Honshu, Japan, it is about 30 mi (48 km) long and 20 mi (32 km) wide. It provides a spacious harbour area for several Japanese cities, including Tokyo, Yokohama, and Kawasaki. A highway connecting Kawasaki with Kisarazu (pop., 2000: 122,766) on the opposite side of the bay was opened in 1997; it includes a bridge and an undersea tunnel that is 5.9 mi (9.5 km) long.

Tokyo Rose orig. Ikuko Toguri (b. July 4, 1916, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) U.S. broadcaster. She was visiting Japan when she was stranded at the outbreak of World War II. In 1943 she began radio announcing for a propaganda program beamed at U.S. troops, and eventually she became one of 13 women announcers, all native speakers of American English, collectively known as Tokyo Rose. After the war she was convicted of treason and served six years in a U.S. prison. Mitigating information later came to light, and she was pardoned in 1977.

Tokyo Stock Exchange Main stock market of Japan, located in Tokyo. It opened in 1878 to provide a market for the trading of govern¬ ment bonds newly issued to former samurai. Government bonds and gold and silver currencies initially formed the bulk of trade on the exchange, but the trading of stocks came to predominate by the 1920s and ’30s. It was closed from 1945 to 1949, when it opened after being reorganized by the occupying U.S. authorities. Today it accounts for more than 90% of all securities transactions in Japan, and it is one of the world’s largest marketplaces for securities. The Nikkei index is the key stock-market index in Tokyo.

Toland Vto-bndV, Gregg (b. May 29, 1904, Charleston, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1948, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. cinematographer. He got his start in the film industry at the age of 15, working as an office boy at the Fox studio, and he soon became a cameraman, working for Samuel Goldwyn and others in the 1930s and ’40s. As director of photography for Dead End (1937), Wuthering Heights (1939, Academy Award), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), Citizen Kane (1941), and The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), he was noted for his brilliant use of chiaroscuro and his deep-

focus camera work. He codirected the war documentary December 7th (1943, Academy Award) with John Ford.

Toledo City (pop., 2000: 313,619), northwestern Ohio, U.S. It is the principal Great Lakes port, located at the southwestern end of Lake Erie. The area was opened to white settlement after the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers. Formed by the consolidation of two villages in 1833, it figured in the so-called Toledo War of 1835-36, a bloodless dispute between Michigan Territory and Ohio over the location of their common bound¬ ary. Industrial development was spurred in the 1830s and ’40s by the arrival of canals and railroads. Glassmaking, now a major industry, was introduced in the late 1880s. A major commercial, industrial, and trans¬ portation centre, it handles considerable foreign commerce, and its port is one of the world’s largest shippers of bituminous coal. Its educational institutions include the University of Toledo (1872).

Toledo \t9-'le-do,\ Spanish \to-'la-tho\ ancient Toletum City (pop., 2001: 68,382), capital of Castile-La Mancha autonomous community, south-central Spain. On the Tagus River, it was the stronghold of the Car- pentini, a powerful Iberian tribe, when it was conquered by Rome in 193 bc. In the 6th century ad it became the Visigoths’ capital in Spain. Under the Moors (712-1085) it became a centre of Hebrew and Arabic culture, and it was noted for the manufacture of swords. Taken by Alfonso VI in 1085, it became the capital of New Castile and, in 1230, of the united kingdom of Castilla y Leon. Toledo was noted for its policy of religious tolerance toward Jews and Arabs during the 11th—15th centuries. It lost importance after Philip II moved the capital to Madrid in 1560. The French occupied Toledo during the Peninsular War (1808-14), and Nationalist forces besieged it (1936) in the Spanish Civil War. Known for its great wealth of notable architecture, the entire urban area is a national monu¬ ment. It was the home of El Greco.

Toledo, councils of Eighteen councils of the Visigothic church held in Toledo, Spain, from c. 400 to 702. Most attending were bishops, with some members of the lower clergy and the nobility. The decisions often affected civil and political affairs, and nearly all were convoked by kings. At the third Council of Toledo in 589, King Recared rejected his Arian faith and accepted Catholicism, an event that led to the unification of Visigothic Spain with Catholicism as the state religion.

Toleration Act (1689) Act of the British Parliament that granted free¬ dom of worship to Nonconformists, allowing them their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers. The act did not apply to Catholics and Unitarians and continued the existing social and political prohibitions, such as exclusion from political office, that applied to dis¬ senters from the Church of England.

Tolkien \'tal-,ken,\ commonly \'tol-,kin\, J(ohn) R(onald) R(euel)

(b. Jan. 3, 1892, Bloemfontein, S.Af.—d. Sept. 2, 1973, Bournemouth, Hampshire, Eng.) South African-born English novelist and scholar. A pro¬ fessor of Anglo-Saxon and of English language and literature at Oxford (1925-59), Tolkien achieved fame for his heroic epic The Lord of the Rings (1954-56), consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring (film, 2001), The Two Towers (film, 2002), and The Return of the King. The Hobbit (1937) serves as an introduction to the series, The Silmarillion (1977) as a “prequel.” Set in the mythical past, the richly inventive tale chronicles the struggle between good and evil kingdoms to possess a magic ring that controls the balance of power in the world. In the 1960s its popularity with young people made it a sociocultural phenomenon, and starting in 2001 the release of a series of critically acclaimed films renewed interest in the epic.

toll Sum levied on users of certain roads, canals, bridges, tunnels, and other such travel and transportation infrastructure, primarily to pay for construction and maintenance. Tolls were known in the ancient world and were widely used in medieval Europe as a means of supporting bridge construction. Canal building, which became extensive in Europe in the 18th—19th centuries, was financed chiefly by tolls, and many major roads were built by private companies with the right to collect tolls. In the U.S. the National Road, built beginning in 1806, was initially financed through the sale of public land, but maintenance problems led Congress to autho¬ rize tolls. Toll roads diminished in the latter part of the 19th century, but the idea was revived with the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the 1930s, and after World War II many states built toll expressways. In many countries tolls are also used to finance long-span bridges, major tunnels, and high¬ ways. They have also been blamed for both reducing, and abetting, rush- hour traffic congestion. Canal tolls are still charged in some parts of the world, notably on the Suez and Panama canals.

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1920 I Tolly ► Tombstone

Tolly, Mikhail Barclay de See Mikhail, Prince Barclay de Tolly

Tolman, Edward C(hace) (b. April 14, 1886, West Newton, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 19, 1959, Berkeley, Calif.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at the University of California at Berkeley (1918-54). Although he was a behaviourist, he considered classical behaviourism too reductive, and he therefore emphasized behavioral wholes and unmeasurable “intervening variables” over a strict focus on isolated reflexes. He also advanced the concept of “latent learning” (implicit, indirect learning). His major work was Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men (1932).

Tolstoy, Aleksey (Konstantinovich), Count (b. Sept. 5, 1817, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Oct. 10, 1875, Krasny Rog) Russian poet, novel¬ ist, and dramatist. A distant relative of Leo Tolstoy, he held various court posts. In the 1850s he began to publish comic verse, often satirizing gov¬ ernment bureaucracy. Among his popular historical novels is Prince Sere- brenni (1862). His dramatic trilogy about the 16th and 17th centuries— The Death of Ivan the Terrible (1866), Tsar Feodor Ioannovich (1868), and Tsar Boris (1870)—is written in blank verse and contains some of Russia’s best historical dramatic writing. His lyric poetry includes many love and nature poems, as well as Ioann Damaskin (1859), a paraphrase of St. John of Damascus’s prayer for the dead.