Britannica Concise 2005

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National Football League (NFL) Major professional football orga¬ nization in the U.S. It was founded in 1920 at Canton, Ohio; its first presi¬ dent was Jim Thorpe. In 1970 it merged with the rival American Football League (founded 1959). Beginning with the 2002 season, it was divided into two conferences, each with four divisions. The National Conference consists of the East Division (Dallas Cowboys, New York Giants, Phila¬ delphia Eagles, and Washington Redskins), the South Division (Atlanta Falcons, Carolina Panthers, New Orleans Saints, and Tampa Bay Bucca¬ neers), the North Division (Chicago Bears, Detroit Lions, Green Bay Packers, and Minnesota Vikings), and the West Division (Arizona Cardi¬ nals, St. Louis Rams, San Francisco Forty-Niners, and Seattle Seahawks). The American Conference consists of the East Division (Buffalo Bills, Miami Dolphins, New England Patriots, and New York Jets), the South Division (Houston Texans, Indianapolis Colts, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Tennessee Titans), the North Division (Baltimore Ravens, Cincinnati Ben- gals, Cleveland Browns, and Pittsburgh Steelers), and the West Division (Denver Broncos, Kansas City Chiefs, Oakland Raiders, and San Diego Chargers). The league season culminates with the Super Bowl, the annual championship game between the winners of the National and American conferences.

national forest In the U.S., any of numerous forest areas under fed¬ eral supervision for the purposes of conserving water, timber, wildlife, fish, and other renewable resources and providing public recreation areas. Administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service, in the early 21st century the forests numbered 155 and occupied 352,000 sq mi (911,700 sq km) in 40 states and Puerto Rico. They were founded in 1891 as a system of forest reserves and were renamed national forests in 1907. See also Gifford Pinchot.

National Gallery of Art Museum in Washington, D.C., part of the Smithsonian Institution. It was founded in 1937 when Andrew W. Mellon donated his collection of European paintings to the U.S. He also donated funds to construct the gallery’s Neoclassical building, opened in 1941. Now known as the West Building, it is connected by plaza and under¬ ground concourse to the East Building, designed by I.M. Pei (completed 1978). The museum houses an extensive collection of U.S. and European paintings, sculpture, decorative arts, and graphic arts from the 12th to 21st centuries; especially well represented are works by Italian Renaissance, 17th-century Dutch, and 18th- and 19th-century French artists.

National Gallery of Canada National art museum founded in Ottawa in 1880. Its holdings include extensive collections of Canadian art as well as important European works. Its nucleus was formed with the donation of diploma works by members of the Royal Canadian Academy. In 1911 the drawing collection was formed (1913-24) with important works by Albrecht DOrer and Rembrandt, and the photography collection was begun in 1967. A new building opened in 1988; the Canadian Cen¬ tre for the Visual Arts opened in 1991 and a multimedia learning centre in 1996. The museum circulates several hundred exhibitions to other cit¬ ies throughout the country each year.

National Geographic Society U.S. scientific society founded in 1888 in Washington, D.C., by a small group of eminent explorers and scientists “for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge.” At the turn of the 21st century it had approximately nine million members. It has supported more than 7,000 major scientific projects and expedi¬ tions, including those of Robert E. Peary, Richard E. Byrd, the Leakey family, Jacques-Yves Cousteau, Jane Goodall, and Dian Fossey. It has published numerous books, atlases, and bulletins and has created hundreds of tele¬ vision documentaries. National Geographic Magazine is a monthly maga¬ zine of geography, archaeology, anthropology, and exploration. It became a leader in reproducing colour photographs and printing photographs of undersea life, views from the stratosphere, and animals in their natural habitats. It also became famous for articles containing substantial infor¬ mation on environmental, social, and cultural aspects of the regions cov¬ ered. See also Gilbert Grosvenor.

National Guard, U.S. Reserve group organized by the U.S. Army and Air Force. Every state and territory of the U.S. has a National Guard, which can be called on by state governors during emergencies such as riots and natural disasters. Guard units may also be ordered into active duty for up to two years by the U.S. president in the event of a national emergency. Enlistment in the National Guard is voluntary.

National Health Service (NHS) Comprehensive government public-health service in Britain covering virtually the entire population,

established in 1946. Financed primarily by general taxes, most services are free. General practitioners and dentists are paid per patient registered with them and may also have private patients. Hospital and specialist ser¬ vices are provided in government hospitals and other facilities by sala¬ ried professionals. Local health authority services provide maternity and child welfare, home nursing, and other preventive services. The NHS has provided generally good health care at relatively low cost, but the increas¬ ing expense of hospital stays has caused financial strain.

National Hockey League (NHL) Organization of professional North American ice-hockey teams. The league was formed in 1917 by five Canadian teams; the first U.S. team, the Boston Bruins, was added in 1924. It today consists of 30 teams in two conferences and six divi¬ sions. The Eastern Conference includes the Atlantic Division (New Jer¬ sey Devils, New York Islanders, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers, and Pittsburgh Penguins), the Northeast Division (Boston Bruins, Buffalo Sabres, Montreal Canadiens, Ottawa Senators, and Toronto Maple Leafs), and the Southeast Division (Atlanta Thrashers, Carolina Hurricanes, Florida Panthers, Tampa Bay Lightning, and Washington Capitals). The Western Conference includes the Central Division (Chicago Blackhawks, Columbus Blue Jackets, Detroit Red Wings, Nashville Predators, and St. Louis Blues), the Northwest Division (Calgary Flames, Colorado Ava¬ lanche, Edmonton Oilers, Minnesota Wild, and Vancouver Canucks), and the Pacific Division (Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, Dallas Stars, Los Ange¬ les Kings, Phoenix Coyotes, and San Jose Sharks). At the end of the regu¬ lar winter season, the top teams in each division engage in a play-off for the Stanley Cup.

national income accounting Set of principles and methods used to measure a country’s income and production. There are two ways of mea¬ suring national economic activity: the expenditure approach, which mea¬ sures the money value of the total output of goods and services in a given period (usually a year); and the income approach, which measures the total income derived from economic activity after allowing for capital consumption. The most commonly used indicator of national output is the gross domestic product (GDP). National income may be derived from gross national product (GNP) by making allowances for certain non-income costs included in the GNP, such as indirect taxes, subsidies, and deprecia¬ tion. National income thus calculated represents the aggregate income of the owners of the factors of production; it is the sum of wages, salaries, profits, interest, dividends, rent, and so on. The data accumulated for cal¬ culating the GDP and national income may be manipulated in various ways to show various relationships in the economy. Common uses of the data include breakdowns of GDP according to type of product, break¬ downs of national income by type of income, and analyses of the sources of financing (e.g., personal savings, company funds, or national deficits).

National Institutes of Health (NIH) U.S. government agency that conducts or supports biomedical research. It is made up of numerous spe¬ cialized institutes (e.g.. National Cancer Institute; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institute on Aging; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; and National Institute of Mental Health). Part of the Department of Health and Human Services, it also trains health researchers; disseminates information; and maintains other offices and divisions, the National Library of Medicine (the foremost source of medical information in the U.S.), and several research centres.

National Labor Relations Act See Wagner Act

National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) U.S. government agency charged with administering the National Labor Relations Act (1935). The three-member NLRB, appointed by the president, organizes elections to determine whether employees wish to be represented by a labour union in COLLECTIVE bargaining and monitors labour practices by employers and unions. It does not initiate investigations; its involvement must be sought by employers, individuals, or unions. Though it lacks enforcement power for its orders, it can prosecute cases in court.

National League (NL) Oldest existing U.S. major-league profes¬ sional baseball organization. The league was founded in 1876. Its supremacy was challenged by several rival organizations over the years, of which only the American League has survived; beginning in 1903, the champions of the two leagues have engaged in an annual World Series competition. Today the National League consists of 16 teams aligned in three divisions. In the Eastern Division are the Atlanta Braves, Florida Marlins (Miami), New York Mets, Philadelphia Phillies, and Washington (D.C.) Nationals. In the Central Division are the Chicago Cubs, Cincin-

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National Liberal Party ► National Socialism I 1333

nati Reds, Houston Astros, Milwaukee Brewers, Pittsburgh Pirates, and St. Louis Cardinals. In the Western Division are the Arizona Diamond- backs (Phoenix), Colorado Rockies (Denver), Los Angeles Dodgers, San Diego Padres, and San Francisco Giants.

National Liberal Party German Nationalliberale Partei

Political party that was active first in Prussia and the North German Con¬ federation from 1867, then in Germany in 1871-1918. From 1871 until 1879 the National Liberals, under the leadership of Rudolf von Bennig- sen and Johannes von Miquel, enthusiastically supported Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the Reichstag (parliament) and constituted a virtual gov¬ ernment party, winning more seats than any other party. After losing many seats in the election of 1879, the party split over the issue of giving the Reichstag control over revenues. It formed a coalition with the Conser¬ vatives in 1890, but its influence waned thereafter.

National Liberation Front Title used by nationalist, usually social¬ ist, movements in various countries since World War II. In Greece, the National Liberation Front-National Popular Liberation Army was a communist-sponsored resistance group that operated in occupied Greece during the war. In Vietnam, the National Front for the Liberation of the South was formed in 1960 to overthrow the South Vietnamese govern¬ ment (see Viet Minh). In Algeria, the National Liberation Front, successor to the body that directed Algeria’s war of independence (1954-62), was the only constitutionally legal party from 1962 to 1989. In Uruguay, the leftist guerrilla Tupamaro National Liberation Front (1963) battled police and the army from 1967 to 1972; it later became a legal political party. In the Philippines, the Moro National Liberation Front (1968) espoused separatism for the Moros; during the last three decades of the 20th cen¬ tury, its insurgency resulted in about 100,000 deaths. The Corsican National Liberation Front (1976), the largest and most violent Corsican nationalist movement, remained active into the 21st century. See also Sandinistas.

national monument In the U.S., any of numerous areas reserved by the federal government for the protection of objects or places of histori¬ cal, scientific, or prehistoric interest. They include natural physical fea¬ tures, remains of Indian cultures, and places of historical importance. In 1906 Pres. Theodore Roosevelt established the first national monument, Devils Tower, in Wyoming. They are administered by the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

National Organization for Women (NOW) U.S. women’s rights organization. It was founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan to promote equal rights for women, particularly in the area of employment. With some 500,000 members (both women and men) and 550 chapters, it addresses, through lobbying and litigation, issues such as child care, pregnancy leave, and abortion and pension rights. In the 1970s its major concern was passage of the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, though the amendment failed in 1982. NOW has been more successful at the state level, where it has lobbied for state equal rights amendments and comparable-worth (equal pay for equal work) legislation.

national park Area set aside by a national government for the pres¬ ervation of its natural environment. Most national parks are kept in their natural state. Those in the U.S. and Canada emphasize land and wildlife preservation, those in Britain focus mainly on the land, and those in Afri¬ can nations focus primarily on animals. The world’s first national park, Yellowstone, was established in the U.S. by Pres. Ulysses S. Grant in 1872. Canada’s first national park, Banff, was established in 1885. Japan and Mexico established their first national parks in the 1930s; Britain’s national parks date to 1949. The U.S. National Park Service, established in 1916, now also manages national monuments, preserves, recreation areas, and seashores, as well as lakeshores, historic sites, parkways, sce¬ nic trails, and battlefields. See also national forest.

National Party in full National Party of South Africa South African political party that ruled the country in 1948-94. Its following included most Afrikaners and many English-speaking whites. It was founded in 1914 by J.B.M. Hertzog as the National Party of South Africa and sought to rally Afrikaners against the Anglicizing policies of the gov¬ ernment of Louis Botha and Jan Smuts. After winning the 1948 elections, the party enacted a mass of racial legislation, a policy that the party named apartheid. In 1961 it severed ties with the Commonwealth and made South Africa a republic. In the 1990s, under F.W. de Klerk of the National Party, the government began to repeal racially discriminatory laws. The National Party was defeated in South Africa’s first universal elections in 1994 but

participated in a coalition government with its longtime rival, the African National Congress. With the enactment of a new constitution in 1996, the Nationalists resigned from the government in protest, marking their first time out of government since 1948. In 1998 the party changed its name to the New National Party. After several years of declining popularity, in 2005 the party’s federal council voted in favour of disbanding the party. See also P.W. Botha.

National Public Radio (NPR) U.S. public radio network. It was established by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting in 1970 to pro¬ vide programming to U.S. noncommercial and educational radio stations. While initially providing programs on the arts, after 1983 the network focused largely on news programming. It features the daily programs Morning Edition and All Things Considered, as well as the interview pro¬ grams Fresh Air and Talk of the Nation.

National Recovery Administration (NRA) (1933-35) U.S. gov¬ ernment agency established to stimulate business recovery during the Great Depression. As part of the National Industrial Recovery Act (1933), the NRA established codes to eliminate unfair trade practices, reduce unemployment, and set minimum wages and maximum hours. The U.S. Supreme Court invalidated the act in 1935 because it gave quasi¬ legislative powers to the executive branch. Many of its provisions appeared in subsequent legislation.

National Republican Parly U.S. political party formed after the Jeffersonian Republicans split in 1825. The National Republicans included followers of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay and opponents of Andrew Jackson. Adams, the incumbent president, ran as the party’s unsuccessful candidate in the 1828 presidential election. Its 1832 presi¬ dential nominee was Clay, whose platform endorsing a high tariff, inter¬ nal improvements, and the Bank of the United States (see Bank War). After losing again to Jackson, the party joined with conservatives and other anti-Jackson forces to form the Whig Party.

National Rifle Association (NRA) Governing organization for the sport of shooting with rifles and pistols. It was founded in Britain in 1860. The U.S. organization, formed in 1871, has a membership of some four million. Both the British and the U.S. groups sponsor regional and national shooting competitions and offer gun safety programs. The U.S. NRA, one of the most powerful political lobbies in the country, has vig¬ orously opposed many legislative proposals for the control of firearms.

National Security Agency (NSA) U.S. intelligence agency respon¬ sible for cryptographic and communications intelligence and security. Established in 1952 by a presidential directive (not by law), it has oper¬ ated largely without Congressional oversight. Its director has always been a general or an admiral. Its mission includes the protection and formu¬ lation of codes, ciphers, and other cryptology as well as the interception, analysis, and solution of coded transmissions. It conducts research into all forms of electronic transmission and operates listening posts around the world for the interception of signals. A target for penetration by for¬ eign intelligence services, until recently it maintained no contact with the public or the press. Though its budget and the number of its employees is secret, the NSA is acknowledged to be far larger than the Central Intel¬ ligence Agency, possessing financial resources that rival those of the world’s largest companies.

National Security Council (NSC) U.S. agency that advises the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies related to national security. With the Central Intelligence Agency, it was established by the 1947 National Security Act. It provides the White House with a foreign- policy-making instrument independent of the State Department. It has four members—the president, vice president, and secretaries of state and defense—and its staff is headed by the national security adviser.

National Socialism or Nazism Totalitarian movement led by Adolf Hitler as head of Germany’s Nazi Party (1920-45). Its roots lay in the tra¬ dition of Prussian militarism and discipline and German Romanticism, which celebrated a mythic past and proclaimed the rights of the excep¬ tional individual over all rules and laws. Its ideology was shaped by Hit¬ ler’s beliefs in German racial superiority and the dangers of communism. It rejected liberalism, democracy, the rule of law, and human rights, stress¬ ing instead the subordination of the individual to the state and the neces¬ sity of strict obedience to leaders. It emphasized the inequality of individuals and “races” and the right of the strong to rule the weak. Politi¬ cally, National Socialism favoured rearmament, reunification of the Ger-

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1334 I nationalism ► Natsume Soseki

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man areas of Europe, expansion into non-German areas, and the purging of “undesirables,” especially Jews. See also fascism.

nationalism Loyalty and devotion to one’s nation or country, espe¬ cially as above loyalty to other groups or to individual interests. Before the era of the nation-state, the primary allegiance of most people was to their immediate locality or religious group. The rise of large, centralized states weakened local authority, and society’s increasing secularization weakened loyalty to religious groups, though shared religion—along with common ethnicity, political heritage, and history—is one of the factors that draws people together in nationalist movements. Early nationalist movements in 18th- and early 19th-century Europe were liberal and inter¬ nationalist, but they gradually became more conservative and parochial. Nationalism is considered a major contributing cause of World War I, World War II, and many other wars of the modern era. In Africa and Asia in the 20th century, nationalist movements often arose in opposition to colonialism. After the fall of the Soviet Union, powerful nationalist sen¬ timents in eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics contributed to ethnic conflicts, such as those in the territories of the former Yugoslavia.

Nationalist Party or Kuomintang or Guomindang

Vgwo-'min-'darjV Political party that governed all or part of mainland China from 1928 to 1949 and subsequently ruled Taiwan. Founded by Song Jiaoren (1882-1913) and led by Sun Yat-sen, it evolved from a revo¬ lutionary league working to overthrow the Qing dynasty into a political party. In the early 1920s the party received guidance from the Soviet Bol¬ shevik party; until 1927 it collaborated with the Chinese Communist Party. Sun’s program, which stressed nationalism, democracy, and people’s live¬ lihood, was ineffectively implemented by his successor, Chiang Kai-shek, who became increasingly conservative and dictatorial. During World War II, Chiang focused on suppressing the Chinese communists at the expense of defending the country from the Japanese; in 1949 the Nationalists were driven from the mainland to Taiwan. There they maintained a monopoly on political power until 1989, when the first legal opposition party won seats in the legislature. The first non-Nationalist president was elected in 2000. See also Wang Jingwei.

nationality Affiliation with a particular nation or sovereign state. People, business coiporations, ships, and aircraft all have nationalities. Nationality is inferior to citizenship, insofar as the latter implies a full set of political privileges and the former does not. Countries have limited rights to determine which of their inhabitants will be their nationals. People generally acquire a nationality by birth within a particular coun¬ try’s territory, by inheritance from one or both parents, or by naturaliza¬ tion. It may change or be augmented or taken away if a country cedes control of the territory where one lives to another country.

Nations, Battle of the See Battle of Leipzig Native American See American Indian

Native American arts Literary, performing, and visual arts of the indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere. Folktales have long been a part of the social and cultural life of diverse groups of American Indian and Inuit peoples. These tales were passed on orally by storytellers whose presentation could shape the power of a story. One technique they fre¬ quently employed was the repetition of incidents. Elements of mythology—which vary from region to region—are also central. Any definition of a Native American musical style is complicated by the vari¬ ety between tribes and within tribal repertoires. An evident feature of much music is male dominance. Equally evident is its limitation to a single singer, who performs without harmonization and with percussion accom¬ paniment. The singing voice is well supported from the diaphragm and has a pulsating quality caused by the rhythmic expulsion of breath. Melo¬ dies are generally sparse, sometimes even monotone; only rarely do songs expand beyond the notes of the pentatonic (five-tone) scale. Among the instruments used are drums, rattles, and sometimes wind instruments such as the panpipe. The dances of Native American peoples represent forms passed down over centuries and modified through interaction with foreign and other Indian cultures. Their origins lie in religious rites; in attempts to invoke magic and thus cure illness or assure success in food produc¬ tion, hunting, and warfare; and in such life-passage rites as birth, puberty, and death. Patterns within the dance reflect complex relations of rank and gender, and the dancers themselves often represent different religious symbols. Characteristic of Indian dancers is a slightly forward-tilted pos¬ ture, forward raising of the knee, flat-footed stamp or toe-heeled action, and tendencies towards muscular restraint and relaxation in gesture.

Native American visual arts also vary widely from tribe to tribe and region to region. The particular utilitarian form that Native American art took on often reflected the social organization of the cultures involved; for example, political and military societies found their major art forms in weaponry, pageantry of costume, and panoply. Working with the materi¬ als natural to their respective homelands, the various Indian cultures also produced art that reflected their environment; for example, those living in forested regions became gifted sculptors in wood. Some of the best Native American artwork was applied to those objects intended to please a deity, soothe the angry gods, and placate or frighten evil spirits. Among the many media explored by Native American cultures are weaving, pot¬ tery, basketry, wooden sculpture, clay ware, quillwork, embroidery, beadwork, totem poles, murals, and masks. Architectural achievements are also varied and include the monumental stone cliff dwellings of the American South¬ west and the enormous Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl at Cholula in Mexico. See also kachina; Navajo weaving; oral tradition; Pueblo pottery; trickster

TALE.

Native American Church or peyotism Religious movement among North American Indians involving the drug peyote. Peyote was first used to induce supernatural visions in Mexico in pre-Columbian times; its use extended north into the Great Plains in the 19th century, and pey¬ otism is now practiced among more than 50 tribes. Peyotist beliefs, which combine Indian and Christian elements, vary from tribe to tribe. They involve worship of the Great Spirit, a supreme deity who deals with humans through various other spirits. In many tribes peyote is personi¬ fied as Peyote Spirit and is associated with Jesus. The rite often begins on Saturday evening and continues through the night. The Peyote Road is a way of life calling for brotherly love, family care, self-support through work, and avoidance of alcohol.

Native Dancer (foaled 1950) U.S. Thoroughbred racehorse. He won the Preakness and Belmont stakes in 1953 but finished second in the Ken¬ tucky Derby. In 1954 he was named Horse of the Year. He won 21 of 22 total starts, achieving widespread popularity as the first horse whose major victories were seen on national television.

native element Any of the 19 chemical elements that occur as min¬ erals and are found in nature uncombined with other elements. They are commonly divided into three groups: metals (platinum, iridium, osmium, iron, zinc, tin, gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead, chromium); semimet¬ als (bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tellurium, selenium); and nonmetals (sul¬ fur, carbon). Members of the group of native elements form under widely varying physicochemical conditions and in very different rock types. Many deposits are sufficiently abundant to be commercially important.

NATO in full North Atlantic Treaty Organization International military alliance created to defend western Europe against a possible Soviet invasion. A 1948 collective-defense alliance between Britain, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg was recognized as inadequate to deter Soviet aggression, and in 1949 the U.S. and Canada agreed to join their European allies in an enlarged alliance. A centralized administrative structure was set up, and three major commands were established, focused on Europe, the Atlantic, and the English Channel (disbanded in 1994). The admission of West Germany in 1955 led to the Soviet Union’s creation of the opposing Warsaw Treaty Organization, or Warsaw Pact. France withdrew from military participation in 1966. Since NATO ground forces were smaller than those of the Warsaw Pact, the balance of power was maintained by superior weaponry, including intermediate-range nuclear weapons. After the Warsaw Pact’s dissolution and the end of the Cold War in 1991, NATO withdrew its nuclear weap¬ ons and attempted to transform its mission. It involved itself in the Bal¬ kan conflicts of the 1990s. Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty stated that an attack on one signatory would be regarded as an attack on the rest. This article was first invoked in 2001 in response to the terrorist Septem¬ ber 11 attacks against the U.S. Additional countries joined NATO in 1999 and 2004 to bring the number of full members to 26.

Natsume Soseki Yna-tsu-'ma-'so-.se-keN known as Soseki orig. Natsume Kinnosuke (b. Feb. 9, 1867, Edo, Japan—d. Dec. 9, 1916, Tokyo) Japanese novelist. Originally a teacher, Natsume made his liter¬ ary reputation with two very successful comic novels, I Am a Cat (1905- 06) and Botchan (1906). After 1907 he gave up teaching and produced sombre works dealing with human attempts to escape from loneliness, including The Wayfarer (1912-13), The Gate (1910), Kokoro (1914), and

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

natural bridge ► Naucratis I 1335

Grass on the Wayside (1915). The first writer of modem realistic novels in Japan, he articulately and persuasively depicted the plight of the alien¬ ated modern Japanese intellectual.

natural bridge or natural arch Naturally created arch formation resembling a bridge. Most are erosion features that occur in sandstone or limestone. Some are formed by the collapse of part of a cavern roof. Oth¬ ers may be produced by entrenched rivers eroding through meander necks to form cutoffs. Still others are produced by exfoliation (separation of successive thin shells) and may be enlarged by wind erosion.

Natural Bridges National Monument National monument, southeastern Utah, U.S. Comprising three large natural bridges carved by two winding streams, it was established in 1908. The largest bridge, Sipapu, is 222 ft (68 m) high and spans 261 ft (80 m). Pictographs were carved on another of the bridges, Kachina, by early cliff dwellers.

natural childbirth Any of the systems (e.g., the Lamaze method) of managing birth without drugs or surgery. All begin with classes to teach pregnant women about the birth process, including when to push and what breathing and relaxation techniques to use at which stage. The goal is to reduce fear and muscle tension, which can increase the pain of labour, and to make the mother an active participant in the process. The father or another partner usually attends the classes with the mother and coaches her during the birth. See also midwifery; obstetrics and gynecology.

natural gas Colourless, highly flammable gaseous hydrocarbon con¬ sisting primarily of methane and ethane. It may also contain heavier hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, helium, and argon. It commonly occurs in association with crude oil (see petroleum). Natural gas is extracted from wells drilled into the Earth. Some natural gas can be used as it comes from the well, without any refining, but most requires processing. It is transported either in its natural gaseous state by pipeline or, after liquefaction by cooling, by tankers. Liquefied natural gas occupies only about 1/600 of the volume of the gas. It has grown steadily as a source of energy since the 1930s.

natural law In jurisprudence and political philosophy, a system of right or justice common to all humankind and derived from nature rather than from the rules of society, or positive law. The concept can be traced to Aristotle, who held that what was “just by nature” was not always the same as what was “just by law.” In one form or another, the existence of natural law was asserted by the Stoics (see Stoicism), Cicero, the Roman jurists, St. Paul, St. Augustine, Gratian, St. Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, and Francisco SuArez. In the modern period, Hugo Grotius insisted on the validity of natural law even on the assump¬ tion that God does not exist, and Thomas Hobbes defined a law of nature as “a precept of general rule found out by reason, by which a man is for¬ bidden to do that which is destructive of his life.” Hobbes attempted to construct an edifice of law by rational deduction from a hypothetical “state of nature” and a social contract of consent between rulers and subjects. John Locke departed from Hobbes in describing the state of nature as an early society in which free and equal men observe the natural law. Jean- Jacques Rousseau postulated a savage who was virtuous in isolation and actuated by two principles “prior to reason”: self-preservation and com¬ passion. The authors of the U.S. Declaration of Independence refer only briefly to “the Laws of Nature” before citing equality and other “unalien¬ able” rights as “self-evident.” The French Declaration of the Rights of AAan and of the Citizen asserts liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression as “imprescriptible natural rights.” Interest in the concept of natural law declined dramatically in the 19th century, partly as a result of skeptical attacks by Jeremy Bentham and other proponents of utilitarian¬ ism; it was revived in the mid-20th century in light of the crimes commit¬ ted by the Nazi regime during World War II. Skepticism of natural law and natural rights remained strong, however, and later writers almost invariably talked of human rights rather than natural rights.

natural selection Process that results in adaptation of an organism to its environment by means of selectively reproducing changes in its geno¬ type. Variations that increase an organism’s chances of survival and pro¬ creation are preserved and multiplied from generation to generation at the expense of less advantageous variations. As proposed by Charles Darwin, natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs. It may arise from differences in survival, fertility, rate of development, mating suc¬ cess, or any other aspect of the life cycle. Mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift, all of which are random processes, also alter gene abundance. Natu¬ ral selection moderates the effects of these processes because it multiplies

the incidence of beneficial mutations over generations and eliminates harmful ones, since the organisms that carry them leave few or no descen¬ dants. See also selection.

naturalism Aesthetic movement of the late 19th to early 20th century. The movement was inspired by the principles and methods of natural sci¬ ence, especially Darwinism, which were adapted to literature and art. In literature, naturalism extended the tradition of realism, aiming at an even more faithful, pseudoscientific representation of reality, presented with¬ out moral judgment. Characters in naturalistic literature typically illus¬ trate the deterministic role of heredity and environment on human life. The movement originated in France, where its leading exponent was Emile Zola. In America it is associated with the work of writers such as Stephen Crane and Theodore Dreiser. Visual artists associated with naturalism chose themes from life, capturing subjects unposed and not idealized, thus giv¬ ing their works an unstudied air. Following the lead of the Realist painter Gustave Courbet, painters chose themes from contemporary life, and many deserted the studio for the open air, finding subjects among peasants and tradespeople, capturing them as they found them. As a result, finished canvases had the freshness and immediacy of sketches. Zola, the spokes¬ man for literary naturalism, was also the first to champion Edouard Manet and the Impressionists (see Impressionism). While naturalism was short¬ lived as a historical movement, it contributed to art an enrichment of real¬ ism, new areas of subject matter, and a largeness and formlessness that was closer to life than to art. Its multiplicity of impressions conveyed the sense of a world in constant flux.

naturalism In philosophy, the theory that affirms that all beings and events in the universe are natural and therefore can be fully known by the methods of scientific investigation. Though naturalism has often been equated with materialism, it is much broader in scope. Strictly speaking, naturalism has no ontological bias toward any particular set of categories of reality: dualism and monism, atheism and theism, idealism and materialism are all compatible with it. Naturalism was most influential in the 1930s and ’40s, chiefly in the U.S. among philosophers such as F.J.E. Wood- bridge (1867-1940), Morris R. Cohen (1880-1947), John Dewey, Ernest Nagel (1901-85), Sidney Hook (1902-89), and W.V.O. Quine.

naturalistic fallacy Fallacy of treating the term “good” (or any equivalent term) as if it were the name of a natural property. In 1903 G.E. Moore presented in Principia Ethica his “open-question argument” against what he called the naturalistic fallacy, with the aim of proving that “good” is the name of a simple, unanalyzable quality, incapable of being defined in terms of some natural quality of the world, whether it be “plea¬ surable” (John Stuart Mill) or “highly evolved” (Herbert Spencer). Since Moore’s argument applied to any attempt to define good in terms of something else, including something supernatural such as “what God wills,” the term “naturalistic fallacy” is not apt. The open-question argu¬ ment turns any proposed definition of good into a question (e.g., “Good means pleasurable” becomes “Is everything pleasurable good?”)— Moore’s point being that the proposed definition cannot be correct, because if it were the question would be meaningless.

naturalization Process of granting nationality or citizenship to an alien. It may be granted after voluntary application or through legislation, marriage to a citizen, or parental action. Involuntary naturalization occurs when one’s home territory is annexed by a foreign state. Qualifications for natu¬ ralization may include a minimum residency period, a minimum age, law- abiding character, good health, self-sufficiency, satisfactory knowledge of the new country, and willingness to give up one’s former nationality.

Nature Conservancy Nonprofit organization dedicated to environ¬ mental conservation and the preservation of biodiversity, founded in 1951, that operates the largest private system of nature sanctuaries in the world. It owns and manages more than 1,500 preserves throughout the U.S., comprising more than 9 million acres (3.8 million hectares) of ecologi¬ cally significant land, and has expanded into Latin America and the Pacific. Government-administered programs identify the relative abun¬ dance of plant and animal species and the habitats they need to survive, and the Conservancy then acquires—through gifts, exchanges, easements, debt-for-nature swaps, purchases, and other nonconfrontational arrangements—areas that are home to threatened species.

nature/nurture controversy See behaviour genetics

Naucratis Vno-kro-tosX Ancient Greek settlement, in Egypt’s Nile River delta. It was founded in the 7th century bc and flourished as a centre of

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trade and cultural relations between Greece and Egypt. It declined after Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt and the founding of Alexandria in 332 bc. In 1884 archaeologist Funders Petrie discovered the site and helped excavate it.

Nauru \na-'u-rii\ officially Republic of Nauru Island country, south¬ eastern Micronesia, western South Pacific Ocean. Area: 8 sq mi (21 sq km). Population (2005): 10,200. Capital: Yaren (district). About two-thirds of the population are indigenous Nauruans. Languages: Nauruan, English. Religion: Christianity (mostly Protestant; also Roman Catholic). Currency: Australian dollar. Nauru is a coral island with a central plateau 100-200 ft (30-60 m) high. A thin strip of fertile land encircling the island is the major zone of human settlement. It lacks harbours; ships must anchor to buoys beyond a reef. Nauru once had the world’s largest concentration of phos¬ phate, and its economy was based on phosphate mining and processing; however, the deposits have been depleted, and the economy has been con¬ verting to fishing and other ventures. Nauru is a republic with one legisla¬ tive house; its head of state and government is the president. It was inhabited by Pacific Islanders when the first British explorers arrived in 1798 and named it Pleasant Island because of their friendly welcome. Annexed by Germany in 1888, it was occupied by Australia at the start of World War I, and in 1919 it was placed under a joint mandate of Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. During World War II it was occupied by the Japanese. Made a UN trust territory under Australian administration in 1947, Nauru gained complete independence in 1968 and became a full member of the Commonwealth and the UN in 1999.

nausea Discomfort in the pit of the stomach associated with disgust for food and a feeling that vomiting will follow, as it often does. Nausea results from irritation of nerve endings in the stomach or duodenum, which stimulate brain centres that control nausea and vomiting. Nausea can be a symptom of minor or serious disorders. Common causes include indi¬ gestion (from eating too fast or from stress around mealtime), food poi¬ soning, motion sickness, and pregnancy (morning sickness). Nausea may also arise from any cause of abnormal lack of appetite (e.g., shock, pain, influenza, badly fitting dentures, liver or kidney disease). Simple nausea often is relieved by vomiting.

nautilus \'no-t 3 l-3s\ Either of two genera of cephalopods. The pearly, or chambered, nautilus (genus Nauti¬ lus) lives in the outermost chamber of its smooth, coiled, usually 36-chambered shell, about 10 in. (25 cm) in diameter. A connecting tube adjusts the gases in the chambers, allowing the shell to act as a float.

Nautiluses search the ocean bottom for shrimp or other prey, which they capture with up to 94 small, sucker¬ less, contractile tentacles. The paper nautilus (genus Argonauta) feeds on plankton near the surface of tropical and subtropical seas. The female resembles an octopus but has a thin, unchambered, coiled shell, 12-16 in.

(30-40 cm) in diameter. The much smaller male has no shell.

Nautilus Any of at least three his¬ toric submarines. Robert Fulton built one of the earliest submersible craft in 1800 in France; his Nautilus had a collapsible mast and sail for sur¬ face propulsion and a hand-turned propeller for power. Andrew Campbell and James Ash of Britain built a Nautilus submarine driven by battery- powered electric motors in 1886. The name was also chosen for the world’s first nuclear-powered submarine, launched by the U.S. Navy in 1954. Capable of longer submersion than any previous submarine, it made a historic trip under the ice cap of the North Pole from Point Barrow, Alaska, to the Greenland Sea in 1958.

Navajo Vna-v3-,ho\ or Navaho North American Indian people living mostly in northwestern New Mexico, Arizona, and southeastern Utah, U.S. The Navajo speak an Athabaskan language related to that of the Apache. The Navajo and Apache migrated from Canada to the Southwest c. ad 900-1200, after which the Navajo came under the influence of the Pueblo Indians. Painted pottery and the famous Navajo rugs, as well as sandpainting, are products of this influence. The craft of silversmithing

probably came from Mexico in the mid-19th century. The traditional economy was based on farming and later herding of sheep, goats, and cattle. The basic social unit was the band. Religion focused on the emer¬ gence of the first people from worlds beneath the Earth’s surface. In 1863 the U.S. government ordered Col. Kit Carson to put an end to Navajo and Apache raiding; his offensives resulted in the incarceration of about 8,000 Navajo and the destruction of crops and herds. Today many Navajo live on or near the Navajo Reservation (24,000 sq mi [64,000 sq km] in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah); thousands earn their living as transient work¬ ers. Their language has been tenaciously preserved; they used it to great effect during World War II by transmitting coded messages in Navajo. The Navajo are the most populous Native American group in the U.S., with about 270,000 individuals claiming sole Navajo descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Navajo National Monument National monument, northern Ari¬ zona, U.S. Covering 360 acres (146 hectares), it comprises three historic cliff dwellings: Betatakin (Navajo: “Ledge House”), Keet Seel (“Broken Pottery”), and Inscription House, among the best-preserved and most elaborate cliff dwellings known. The largest, Keet Seel, was first discov¬ ered by whites in 1895; the three sites were made a national monument in 1909. The dwellings were the principal home of the Kayenta Anasazi c. 1250-1300. The 135 rooms of Betatakin are tucked into a cliffside alcove 452 ft (138 m) high and 370 ft (113 m) wide. Also situated in a cliff alcove are the 160 rooms and 6 kivas (ceremonial houses) of Keet Seel. Inscription House (closed to the public) has 74 rooms.

Navajo weaving Blankets and rugs made by the Navajo, considered among the best-made textiles produced by Native Americans of the U.S. By 1500 the Navajo were well established in what is now the southwest¬ ern U.S., where they began to practice weaving when they turned from a seminomadic life to agriculture. From the Hopi they learned how to make looms and weave fabrics on a large scale; but whereas the Hopi limited their designs to striped patterns, the Navajo introduced geometric shapes, diamonds, lozenges, and zigzags. Traditionally Navajo blankets were made of natural-coloured wool or wool in dark colours produced by dyes made from roots, herbs, and minerals. After the introduction of aniline dyes in the late 19th century, Navajo weavers began using brighter wools and a broader range of decorative motifs.

Naval Academy, U.S. See United States Naval Academy

Naval Limitation, International Conference on See Washing¬ ton Conference

naval warfare Military operations conducted on, under, or over the sea and waged against other seagoing vessels or targets on land or in the air. The earliest naval attacks were raids by the armed men of a tribe or town using fishing boats or merchant ships. The first warships were gal¬ leys, replaced in the 16th and 17th centuries by sail-driven warships equipped with cannons. The British victory over the Spanish Armada (1588) marked a major development: British galleons refused to allow the Spanish ships to get close enough for boarding and hand-to-hand combat and instead pounded them with guns of superior firing capability. Ships of the line and cruisers emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. In the later 19th century, steam replaced sail propulsion, and ironclads offered greater protection against the increasing power of guns. The battleship, developed in these years, reigned until World War II, when the Pearl Har¬ bor attack proved that bombers launched from aircraft carriers could sink any and all surface ships. Since then, naval air power— missiles as well as carrier-based planes—has been the primary weapon of the world’s fleets. Submarines also play a major role in naval warfare.

navaratra In Hinduism, a 9-day festival followed on the 10th day by the dasehra celebration. The festival includes feasting, visiting, public con¬ certs, plays, and fairs. Among the goddess Durga’s followers, who are especially numerous in Bengal and Assam, the Durga-puja is celebrated during this period; in other parts of India, dasehra is associated with the victory of Rama over Ravana, acted out in a pageant climaxed by the burning of effigies of demons.

Navarino X.na-va-'re-noV, Battle of (Oct. 20, 1827) Naval engage¬ ment in the War of Greek Independence against Turkey. A fleet of British, French, and Russian ships was sent to aid Greece by intercepting supplies for the Egyptian-Turkish fleet anchored in the Navarino Bay in the Peloponnese. Shortly after it entered the harbour, the superior guns of the European fleet sent three-fourths of the larger Egyptian-Turkish fleet to

Chambered nautilus (Nautilus)

DOUGLAS FAULKNER

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Navarra ► Nayarit I 1337

the bottom and forced others aground. The defeat marked the last sig¬ nificant battle between wooden sailing ships and led to Turkey’s evacu¬ ation from Greece.

Navarra English Navarre Autonomous community (pop., 2001: 555,829) and province, northern Spain. Established in 1982, it has an area of 4,012 sq mi (10,391 sq km) and is bordered by France. It is approxi¬ mately coextensive with the Spanish part of the historical kingdom of Navarra. The Pyrenees dominate the northern half of the province, and a Mediterranean climate prevails in the south. Manufacturing industries are clustered around the commercial centre and capital, Pamplona.

Navarra English Navarre \no-'var\ Ancient kingdom, northern Spain, bordered by France, Aragon, Castile, and the Basque Country. It encompassed the modern autonomous community of Navarra and part of the modern French department of Pyrenees-Atlantiques. It was conquered by the Romans, then the Visigoths, and Charlemagne. It became an inde¬ pendent kingdom in the 10th century. A succession of French dynasties ruled Navarra after 1234. Incorporated into Castile in 1515, it was united to the French crown when Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France in 1589.

Navarro \na-'va-ro. Fats orig. Theodore Navarro (b. Sept. 24, 1923, Key West, Fla., U.S.—d. July 7, 1950, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jazz trumpeter. Navarro replaced Dizzy Gillespie in the big band of Billy Eckstine in 1946, acquiring a reputation as a virtuoso player capable of executing complex phrases with rare grace. He participated in the burgeoning jazz milieu based around 52nd St. in New York City in the late 1940s, work¬ ing with bebop innovators such as Bud Powell, Charlie Parker, and Tadd Dameron (1917-65). Addiction to heroin curtailed his activity, and he died of tuberculosis.

Navas de Tolosa, Battle of Las See Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

nave Main part of a Christian church, extending from the entrance (the narthex) to the transept or chancel (area around the altar). In a basilican church (see basilica), which has side aisles, nave refers only to the central section. Medieval naves were gener¬ ally divided into many bays, produc¬ ing the effect of great length. During the Renaissance, the nave format became more flexible, and the nave was divided into fewer compart¬ ments, giving a feeling of spacious¬ ness and balanced proportion among the height, length, and width, as in St. Paul's Cathedral.

navigation Science of directing a craft by determining its position, course, and distance traveled. Early mariners followed landmarks visible on shore and studied prevailing winds for clues to direction. The Phoenicians and Polynesians sailed out of sight of land and used the stars to set their course. The compass (first used by the Chinese c. 1100) was the first navigational aid that gave a constant reference point, though its accuracy was limited, especially in heavy seas. Modem compasses are stabilized by gyroscopes and housed in binnacles that compensate for the craft’s motion. Ship speed was first calculated by dropping overboard a log attached to a reel of line knotted at regular intervals; the number of knots exposed while the log drifted and a sandglass emptied gave the ves¬ sel’s speed in knots (nautical mph). Charts are another essential naviga¬ tional tool. Fixing a position requires charts detailing known locations, together with instruments that calculate a vessel’s bearing relative to them. The earliest instrument for determining latitude was the quadrant, which measured the altitude of the polestar or the noonday sun. Other early instruments included the sextant and the astrolabe. Longitude (used for navigation with increasing success in the 17th-18th century) was fixed using chronometers and tables showing positions of celestial bodies throughout the year. In the 20th century, radio beacons and satellite net¬ works allowed aircraft and ships to determine their position. Dead reck¬ oning uses an accurate history of a vessel’s headings and speeds drawn from gyroscopes and from computerized measurements of the craft’s acceleration. See also Global Positioning System.

Navigation Acts English laws in the 17th—18th centuries that required the use of English or colonial ships to carry English trade. The laws were designed to encourage English shipbuilding and restrict trade competition from England’s commercial rivals, especially the Dutch. The acts of the 18th century gradually restricted trade by the American colonies and con¬ tributed to growing colonial resentment with the imposition of additional duties on sugar, tobacco, and molasses.

Navistar International Corp. Leading U.S. truck manufacturer. It originated as International Harvester Co., which was incorporated in 1902, merging McCormick Harvesting Machine Co. (founded by Cyrus H. McCormick to market his mechanical reaper) with four smaller machin¬ ery makers. It became a pioneer in motorized trucks when it introduced its high-wheeled “auto wagons” for farmers. It began producing tractors in the 1930s and soon became a major manufacturer of earth-moving equipment. Facing economic difficulties in the early 1980s, it sold most of its U.S. construction-equipment business and disposed of its farm- equipment line to concentrate almost entirely on trucks, and in 1986 the company changed its name to Navistar International.

Navratilova \,nav-r3-ti- , lo-v3\ A Martina (b. Oct. 18, 1956, Prague, Czech.) Czech-born U.S. tennis player. She became the undisputed top- seeded player in the world in 1979 after winning the Wimbledon wom¬ en’s singles and doubles. In 1982 she won 90 of 93 matches, and in 1983 she won 86 of 87 matches. In 1984 she was honoured for winning the grand slam but later was denied the title on a technicality. By 1987 she had won 37 individual grand-slam championships, and by 1994 she had won 56, ranking second only to Margaret Smith Court. By 1992 she had accumulated more championships (158) than any other player, male or female, in tennis history, and she retired in 1994 with 167 titles. In 2000 she returned to professional play, competing in several doubles events. In 2003 she won the mixed doubles at Wimbledon, tying Billie Jean King for most Wimbledon titles (20). With the victory, Navratilova, who was 46, became the oldest player to win at Wimbledon.

navy Warships and craft of every kind maintained by a nation for fight¬ ing on, under, or over the sea. A large modem navy includes aircraft car¬ riers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, submarines, minesweepers and minelayers, gunboats, and various types of support, supply, and repair ships, as well as naval bases and ports. Naval ships are the chief means by which a nation extends sea power. Their two chief functions are to achieve sea control and sea denial. Control of the sea enables a nation and its allies to carry on maritime commerce, amphibious assaults, and other seaborne operations that may be essential in wartime. Denial of the sea deprives enemy merchant vessels and warships of safe navigation. See also U.S. Navy.

Naxos Vnak-sas\ Largest island (pop., 1991: 14,838) of the Cyclades, Greece. It is about 22 mi (35 km) long and 16 mi (26 km) wide, with an area of 165 sq mi (427 sq km). The capital and chief port, Naxos, on the western coast, is on the site of the island’s ancient and medieval capitals. In ancient times, it was famous for its wines and the worship of Dionysus. In mythol¬ ogy, it is where Theseus abandoned Ariadne. In the 7th-6th centuries bc a deep-grained white marble was exported for statuary. It was captured by the Persians in 490 bc and by Athens in 471 bc. A Venetian duchy ruled from 1207 to 1566; it was later ruled by the Turks. In 1830 it joined the Greek kingdom. Ruins of a Mycenaean settlement (see Mycenae) have been found there. Naxos produces white wine, citrus, and emery.

Nayar \'na-yor\ Hindu caste of the Indian state of Kerala. Before the British conquest in 1792, the Nayar caste supplied Kerala’s royalty and nobility, militia, and land managers. During British rule, Nayars became prominent in politics, medicine, education, and law. Unlike most Hindus, Nayars traditionally were matrilineal, and fathers had no rights or obli¬ gations with regard to their children. Plural marriage, in which both men and women could receive multiple “visiting” spouses, was practiced until the 19th century. Laws passed in the 1930s enforced monogamy and gave children full rights of inheritance from the father.

Nayarit \,m-3-'ret\ State (pop., 2000: 920,185), west-central Mexico. It covers an area of 10,417 sq mi (26,979 sq km), and its capital is Tepic. The Sierra Madre rises steeply from the Pacific littoral and cuts the terrain into gorges and valleys. Peaks include the volcanoes Ceboruco and Sanga- ngiiey. The coastal lagoons are well-known bird refuges. The main river, Grande de Santiago, flowing from Lake Chapala, is sometimes considered a continuation of the Lerma River. The economy is primarily based on agri¬ culture.

Nave, Salisbury Cathedral, England, begun 1220

A.F. KERSTING

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Nazarene \'na-z3-,ren\ Any member of the Brotherhood of St. Luke, an association formed in 1809 by young German, Swiss, and Austrian painters in reaction against Neoclassicism. It was the first effective anti¬ academic movement in European painting. The members acquired the originally derisive nickname Nazarenes because of their affectation of biblical style of hair and dress. The Nazarenes believed that all art should serve a moral or religious purpose. They admired medieval and early Renaissance painters and rejected most subsequent painting, believing it abandoned religious ideals in favour of artistic virtuosity. Members lived and worked together in a semimonastic existence, trying to imitate the teaching situation of the medieval workshop. The leading members were Friedrich Overbeck (1789-1869), Franz Pforr (1788-1812), and Peter von Cornelius (1783-1867).

Nazareth Hebrew Nazerat \,na-z3-'rat\ Arabic Al-Nasirah

\en-'na-se-,ra\ Town (pop., 2000 est.: 69,604), northern Israel, southeast of Haifa. It is Israel’s largest Arab city. In the New Testament, it is the childhood home of Jesus. It contains many Christian churches and is a pilgrimage centre. Captured by Christians several times during the Cru¬ sades, it was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. It was part of British- mandate Palestine from 1918 and part of Israel from 1948. Christian Arabs form the majority of the population.

Nazi Party German political party of National Socialism. Founded in 1919 as the German Workers’ Party, it changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party when Adolf Hitler became leader (1920- 21). The nickname Nazi was taken from the first word of its full name, Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter-Partei. The party grew from its home base in Bavaria and attracted members from disaffected elements throughout Germany. It organized strong-arm groups (later the SA) to protect its rallies. Though the failed Beer Hall Putsch diminished the par¬ ty’s influence, the effects of the Great Depression brought millions of new members, and in 1932 the party became the largest bloc in the Reichstag. After Hitler was named chancellor in 1933, he obtained passage of the Enabling Act, and his government declared the Nazi party to be the only political party in Germany and required bureaucrats to become members. The party controlled virtually all activities in Germany until Germany’s defeat in World War II (1945), after which the party was banned.

NBA See National Basketball Assn.

NBC in full National Broadcasting Co. Major U.S. commercial broadcasting company. It was formed in 1926 by RCA Corp., General Electric Co. (GE), and Westinghouse and was the first U.S. company to operate a broadcast network. Directed by RCA’s president David Sarnoff, it became wholly owned by RCA in 1930. NBC was initially divided into the semi-independent Blue Network, based on station WJZ, and the Red Network, based on WEAF, each with links to stations in other cities. By 1938 the Red Network carried 75% of NBC’s programs. The Blue Net¬ work was sold in 1941 and became the American Broadcasting Co. (ABC). NBC entered television broadcasting in a weakened position, and by 1952 it trailed CBS in audience ratings, though it gradually regained its lead¬ ing position. In 1986 RCA was sold to GE; in 1987 NBC sold its radio networks. In the 1990s NBC expanded its cable television programming, creating MSNBC (an alliance with Microsoft) and CNBC (an alliance with Dow Jones).

NCAA See National Collegiate Athletic Assn.

NCR Corp. U.S. manufacturer of cash registers, computers, and information-processing systems. It was founded in 1884 as National Cash Register Co. by John H. Patterson, who bought a failing maker of cash registers in Dayton, Ohio. He improved the design, sent out an aggres¬ sive sales force, and hired repairmen to service his products after sale. The company expanded in the 20th century, introducing accounting machines in the 1920s, electronic products during World War II, com¬ puter hardware and software in the 1960s, and microelectronics in the 1970s. In 1991 it was purchased by AT&T Corp. and renamed AT&T Glo¬ bal Information Solutions. When AT&T split into three companies in 1996, NCR Corp. was spun off and assumed its former name.

Ndebele \en-d9-'ba-la\ formerly Matabele \,mad-3-'ba-la\ Bantu¬ speaking people who live primarily around the city of Bulawayo, Zimb., but also in Botswana. They originated early in the 19th century as an off¬ shoot of the Nguni of Natal, moving first to Basutoland (now Lesotho) and ultimately to Matabeleland (Zimbabwe). Under Lobengula they grew in power but were defeated by the British in 1893. Today they are a farm¬

ing and herding people numbering more than 1.5 million. They differ from the Ndebele of South Africa, whose women are known worldwide for their elaborate beadwork and the strong geometric designs they paint on the walls of their houses.

N'Djamena \ 3 n-ja-'ma-na\ formerly Fort-Lamy V.for-lo-'meV City (pop., 1993: metro, area, 530,965), capital of Chad. It lies adjacent to Cameroon on the eastern bank of the Chari River, where it joins the Logone River. Founded in 1900 as Fort-Lamy, it remained a small settlement until after Chad’s independence in 1960. In 1973 its name was changed to N’Djamena. It was occupied by Libyan forces in 1980-81 during the civil war that began in the 1960s. It is an important marketplace for cotton, cattle, and fish. It is the site of the nation’s only university, the Univer¬ sity of Chad (founded 1971).

Ndongo \ 3 n-'doq-go\ Historical African kingdom of Mbundu people. Established c. 1500 in what is now Angola, it instituted trade relations with the Portuguese of Sao Tome in the 16th century. When Portugal tried to take it over, some 100 years of fighting ensued. It was absorbed into Angola c. 1670.

Ne Win Vna-'winV, U or Shu Maung Vshii-'mauqX (b. May 24, 1911, Paungdale, Burma—d. Dec. 5,2002, Yangon, Myanmar) Leader of Burma (Myanmar) from 1962 to 1988. He became involved in the Burmese inde¬ pendence movement in the mid-1930s. During World War II he initially served in the Japanese-sponsored army but later helped organize under¬ ground resistance to the Japanese. In 1962 he ousted the elected prime minister U Nu; his subsequent regime combined military dictatorship with a socialist economic program. Burma became isolated and impoverished under Ne Win, and he resigned in 1988. He continued to exercise power behind the scenes, however, until shortly before his death.

NEA See National Education Association; National Endowment for the Arts

Neagh \'na. Lough Lake, east-central Northern Ireland. It is the larg¬ est lake in the British Isles, with an area of 153 sq mi (396 sq km). It is about 15 mi (24 km) wide and 18 mi (29 km) long, though it is only about 40 ft (12 m) deep. Ancient deposits in Toome Bay, on its northwestern shore, have yielded the oldest recorded human artifacts in Ireland. In 1959 flood-control works significantly lowered the lake level.

Neanderthal Vne-'an-dor-.thal, na-'an-dor-.taH Species of the human genus {Homo) that inhabited much of Europe and the Mediterranean lands c. 200,000-28,000 years ago. The name derives from the discovery in 1856 of remains in a cave above Germany’s Neander Valley. Some schol¬ ars designate the species as Homo neanderthalensis and do not consider Neanderthals direct ancestors of modern humans {Homo sapiens). Others regard them as a late archaic form of H. sapiens that was absorbed into modern human populations in some areas while simply dying out in oth¬ ers. Neanderthals were short, stout, and powerful. Cranial capacity equaled or surpassed that of modem humans, though their braincases were long, low, and wide. Their limbs were heavy, but they seem to have walked fully erect and had hands as capable as those of modem humans. They were cave dwellers who used fire, wielded stone tools and wooden spears to hunt animals, buried their dead, and cared for their sick or injured. They may have used language and may have practiced a primi¬ tive form of religion. See also Mousterian industry.

near-death experience Mystical or transcendent experience reported by people who have been on the threshold of death. The near¬ death experience varies with each individual, but characteristics fre¬ quently include hearing oneself declared dead, feelings of peacefulness, the sense of leaving one’s body, the sense of moving through a dark tun¬ nel toward a bright light, a life review, the crossing of a border, and meet¬ ings with other spiritual beings, often deceased friends and relatives. Near¬ death experiences are reported by about one-third of those who come close to death. Cultural and physiological explanations have been offered, but the causes remain uncertain. Typical aftereffects include greater spiritu¬ ality and decreased fear of death.

Near East See Middle East

Nebraska State (pop., 2000: 1,711,263), west-central U.S. Bordered by South Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming, it covers 77,353 sq mi (200,343 sq km); its capital is Lincoln. The Missouri River is on its eastern boundary. The North Platte and South Platte unite in southwest-central Nebraska to form the Platte River. Various prehistoric

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Nebuchadnezzar II ► needlepoint I 1339

peoples inhabited the area as early as 8000 bc. Indian tribes living in the area include Pawnee, Oto, and Omaha in the east and centre, as well as Oglala, Sioux, Arapaho, and Comanche in the west. The U.S. bought the territory from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. In 1804 the Lewis and Clark Expedition visited the Nebraska side of the Missouri River. It became part of Nebraska Territory with the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. Nebraska was admitted to the Union as the 37th state in 1867. Soon after, the population increased, and as Indian resistance on the fron¬ tier was broken, settlement extended to Nebraska’s panhandle. At the turn of the 20th century, it experienced a short but influential Populist move¬ ment. In 1937 it established a unicameral legislature, the only one in the country. Most of the state is agricultural; its industries include food pro¬ cessing and machinery. Petroleum is the principal mineral resource. In addition to Lincoln, Omaha is the state’s other cultural and industrial cen¬ tre.

Nebuchadnezzar II See Nebuchadrezzar II

Nebuchadrezzar X.neb-yo-kod-'re-zorX II or Nebuchadnezzar

\,neb-y3-k3d-'ne-z9r\ (b. c. 630—d. c. 561bc) Second and greatest king of the Chaldean dynasty of Babylonia. He began his military career as an administrator (c. 610 bc) and ascended the throne on his father’s death, just after winning Syria from the Egyptians (605 bc). He attacked Judah, capturing Jerusalem in 597 and recapturing it in 587/586, and deporting prominent citizens to Babylon. He devoted time and energy to restoring Babylon, by paving roads, rebuilding temples, and digging canals. At least in folk tradition, he is credited with building the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

nebula Vneb-y9-b\ Any of various tenuous clouds of gas and dust in interstellar space. Nebulae constitute only a small percentage of a gal¬ axy’s mass. Dark nebulae (e.g., the Coalsack) are very dense, cold molecu¬ lar clouds that appear as large, obscure, irregularly shaped areas in the sky. Bright nebulae (e.g., the Crab Nebula, planetary nebula) appear as faintly luminous, glowing surfaces; they emit their own light or reflect that of stars near them. The term nebula also formerly referred to galax¬ ies outside the Milky Way Galaxy.

nebular hypothesis See solar nebula

NEC Corp. Major Japanese computer, electronics, and telecommunica¬ tions equipment manufacturer. Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. (officially NEC Corp. in 1983), was founded in 1899 with funding from the West¬ ern Electric Co. Inc. of the U.S. NEC was the first Japanese joint venture with a foreign company. As Japan’s preeminent telecommunications com¬ pany, NEC contributed to developments in mobile telephony, fibre-optic networks, private-branch exchanges (PBXs), and microwave, digital, and satellite communications systems. Besides mainframe computers, NEC was an early manufacturer of personal computers (PCs). In 1997 NEC merged its North American PC operations with Zenith Data Systems and Packard Bell to form Packard Bell-NEC, Inc.

necessity In logic and metaphysics, a modal property of a true propo¬ sition whereby it is not possible for the proposition to be false and of a false proposition whereby it is not possible for the proposition to be true. A proposition is logically necessary if it instantiates a law of logic or can be made to instantiate a law of logic through substitution of definition- ally equivalent terms. Examples are “It is raining now or it is not raining now” and “All men are human beings” (assuming “men” can be replaced with “male human beings”). Necessary propositions are sometimes said to be true or false (as the case may be) in all possible worlds. A contin¬ gently true or false proposition is thus one that is true in some possible worlds and false in others (e.g., “France is a democracy”). All true logi¬ cally necessary propositions are analytic (see analytic-synthetic distinction) and knowable A priori. Some philosophers recognize a second category of “metaphysically” necessary propositions that are not analytic and gener¬ ally not a priori; examples include identity statements such as “Water is H 2 0.”

Nechako \ni-'cha-ko\ River River, central British Columbia, Canada. The major tributary of the Fraser River, it flows east for nearly 150 mi (240 km). The Stuart River, a tributary 258 mi (415 km) long, joins it between Fort Fraser and Prince George, where it parallels the Canadian National Railway. In 1952 the Nechako was bisected by Kenney Dam, which created a reservoir whose overflow generates electricity.

Neckar River Vne-kar\ River, southwestern Germany. It rises in the Black Forest near the headwaters of the Danube River and is 228 mi (367

km) long. It flows north and northeast, passing Stuttgart. Its picturesque valley becomes broader and deeper, passing hills crowned by feudal castles. It flows past Heidelberg and enters the Rhine River at Mannheim.

Necker \na-'ker, 'ne-korV, Jacques (b. Sept. 30, 1732, Geneva, Switz.—d. April 9, 1804, Coppet) Swiss-born French financier and director-general of finance under Louis XVI. He became a banker in Paris, and, after becoming wealthy from speculating during the Seven Years’ War, he was appointed minister of Geneva in Paris (1768). He retired from banking in 1772 and became France’s director-general of finance in 1777. Despite his cautious reforms, he was forced to resign in 1781 over oppo¬ sition to his scheme to help finance the American Revolution. He was recalled in 1788 to rescue the almost bankrupt France, and he proposed financial and political reforms that included a limited constitutional mon¬ archy. Opposition from the royal court led to Necker’s dismissal on July 11, 1789, an event that provoked the storming of the Bastille. After serv¬ ing again briefly (1789-90), he retired to Geneva. Germaine de Stael was his daughter.

necropolis \ni-'kra-p3-bs\ (Greek: “city of the dead”) Extensive and elaborate burial place serving an ancient city. The locations of these cem¬ eteries varied. Many in Egypt, such as the necropolis of western Thebes, were situated across the Nile River opposite the cities. In Greece and Rome a necropolis often lined the roads leading out of town. A necrop¬ olis was discovered in the 1940s under St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

nectarine Smooth-skinned peach (Prunus persica ‘nectarina’), grown throughout warmer temperate regions. They result when some peaches self-pollinate or are crossed so that they express a genetic factor for smooth skin. Nectarines are com¬ monly eaten fresh or cooked in des¬ serts and jams; they are a good source of vitamins A and C.

Needham, John Turberville

(b. Sept. 10, 1713, London, Eng.—d.

Dec. 30, 1781, Brussels, Belg.) Brit¬ ish naturalist. He was a Roman Catholic priest, whose reading about microscopic organisms led him to study natural history in London and Paris (1746-49). He became a strong supporter of the theory that life arose from inorganic matter (spontaneous generation) and that life processes cannot be explained by the laws of chemistry and physics (vitalism). In 1750 he presented his theory of spontaneous generation and attempted to offer scientific evidence supporting it.

needle Basic implement used in sewing or embroidering and, in vari¬ ant forms, for knitting and crocheting. The sewing needle is small, slen¬ der, and rodlike. One end is sharply pointed to make passing it through fabric easy; the other end has a slot (called an eye) to carry a thread. Mod¬ ern sewing needles are made of steel. Crocheting needles are eyeless and have a hook on one end; they are usually of steel or plastic. Knitting needles are long, made of various materials, and bluntly pointed at one or both ends, sometimes with a knob at the end opposite the point.

needlefish Any of about 60 species (family Belonidae) of primarily marine, edible, carnivorous fishes found throughout temperate and tropi¬ cal waters. Needlefish are adept jumpers and have a long, slender jaw with sharp teeth. They are long, slim, and silvery, with a blue or green back. The largest species grows to 4 ft (1.2 m) long. The garfish (Belone belone) occurs in Europe, and the houndfish (Tylosurus crocodilus ) is found everywhere in the tropics.

needlepoint Type of embroidery in which the stitches are counted and worked with a needle over the threads, or mesh, of a canvas foundation. It was known as canvas work until the early 19th century. If the canvas has 16 or more mesh holes per linear inch, the embroidery is called petit point; most needlepoint was petit point in the 16th-18th century. Needlepoint as it is known today originated in the 17th century, when the fashion for fur¬ niture upholstered with embroidered fabrics prompted the development of a more durable material to serve as the embroidery’s foundation. Wool is generally used for needlepoint, silk yarn less often. Needlepoint kits, con-

Nectarine (Prunus persica var. nectar¬ ina)

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taining canvas stamped with a design and all the materials needed for the project, were sold as early as the mid-18th century. See also bargello.

Nefertiti \,ne-f3r-'te-te\ (fl. 14th century bc) Queen of Egypt and wife of Akhenaton (r. 1353-36 bc). She is known from her portrait bust found at Tell el-Amarna, the king’s new capital. She may have been an Asian princess from Mitanni. She appears with Akhenaton in reliefs at Tell el-Amama and followed his new cult of the sun god Aton. Of her six daughters, two became queens of Egypt. In the 12th year of Akhenaton’s reign, Nefertiti either retired after losing favour or died.

Negev Vne-,gev\ or Ha-Negev

Desert region, southern Israel.

Bounded by the Sinai Peninsula and the Jordan Rift Valley, it has an area of about 4,700 sq mi (12,200 sq km).

It was a pastoral region in biblical times and an important source of grain for the Roman Empire. After the Arab conquest of Palestine (7th century ad), it was left desolate, and for more than 1,200 years it had only a small population of Bedouin. Mod¬ ern agricultural development began with three KiBBUTZim in 1943; others were founded after World War II (1939—45), when irrigation projects were initiated. Assigned to Israel in the partition of Palestine in 1948, it was the scene of clashes between Israeli and Egyptian forces in 1948—

It is the site of many preplanned Israeli settlements, including the port city of Elat, Israel’s outlet to the Red Sea. Beersheba is an important administrative centre. The region produces grain, fruit, and vegetables; mineral resources include potash, bromine, and copper.

negligence In law, failure to exercise the degree of care expected of a person of ordinary prudence in protecting others from a risk of harm. It may render one civilly and sometimes criminally liable for resulting injuries. The doctrine of negligence does not require the elimination of all risk, but rather only foreseeable and unreasonable risk. Thus a higher standard applies to explosives manufacturers than to manufacturers of kitchen matches. The plaintiff must ordinarily prove the defendant’s negligence with a preponderance of evidence. See also contributory negligence.

negotiable instrument Transferable document (e.g., a bank note, check, or draft) containing an unconditional promise or order to pay a specified amount to its holder upon demand or at a specified time. In the U.S., the Uniform Commercial Code governs negotiable instruments.

Negritude \na-gre-'tmd\ Literary movement of the 1930s, ’40s, and ’50s. It began among French-speaking African and Caribbean writers liv¬ ing in Paris as a protest against French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading figures— Leopold Senghor of Senegal, Aime Cesaire of Martinique, and Leon Damas (1912-78) of French Guiana—began to examine Western values critically and to reassess African culture. The group believed that the value and dignity of African traditions and peoples must be asserted, that Africans must look to their own heritage for val¬ ues and traditions, and that writers should use African subject matter and poetic traditions. The movement faded in the early 1960s after its objec¬ tives had been achieved in most African countries.

Negro leagues Associations of teams of black baseball players active largely between 1920 and the late 1940s. The principal leagues were the Negro National League, originally organized by Rube Foster in 1920, and the Negro American League, organized in 1937. The most noted teams included the Homestead (Pa.) Grays, who won nine pennants in the years 1937—45 and included the great hitters Cool Papa Bell, Buck Leonard, and Josh Gibson. In the mid 1930s the Pittsburgh Crawfords included Satchel

Paige and the clutch-hitter William Julius “Judy” Johnson. The Kansas City Monarchs, after winning four national championships, lost Jackie Robinson to the Brooklyn Dodgers; the breaking of the colour barrier in major and minor league baseball led to the Negro leagues’ decline.

Negro \'na-gro\ River or Guainia \gwI-'ne-3\ River River, north¬ western South America. A major tributary of the Amazon River, it rises in the rainforest of eastern Colombia, where it is known as the Guainia, and forms a section of the border between Colombia and Venezuela. It crosses Brazil and joins the Amazon at Manaus. It is about 1,400 mi (2,250 km) long and is a major transport artery. Its name comes from its jet-black colour, which is caused by the decomposition of organic matter and its low silt content.

Negro River River, central Uruguay. It rises in the southern highlands of Brazil. Flowing southwest across Uruguay, it is dammed at the Rincon del Bonete Reservoir, the largest artificial lake in South America, with an area of roughly 4,000 sq mi (10,400 sq km). The river joins the Uruguay River at Soriano. Although it is about 500 mi (800 km) long, it is navi¬ gable for only about 45 mi (70 km) upstream from its mouth.

Negroid See race

Negros Vna-gros\ Island (pop., 2000: 3,691,784) in the Visayan group, central Philippines. It is the fourth largest island of the archipelago and is shaped like a boot. The island is about 135 mi (217 km) long and has an area of 4,907 sq mi (12,710 sq km). It produces about half of all Phil¬ ippine sugar and is one of the wealthiest and most politically influential regions in the country. Bacolod, on the northwestern coast, is its largest city and an important sugar exporter.

Nehemiah V.ne-s-'mI-oV (fl. 5th century bc) Jewish leader who super¬ vised the rebuilding of Jerusalem. His story is told in the biblical book of Nehemiah. He was cupbearer to the Persian ruler Artaxerxes I soon after the end of the Babylonian Exile, when the Temple of Jerusalem had been rebuilt but the Jewish community was still weak and fragmented. Around 444 bc he was put in charge of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, and he orga¬ nized the rebuilding of the city walls. He also revived adherence to Mosaic law and forbade intermarriage with non-Jews. His work as a reformer was later continued by Ezra.

Nehru \'na-ru\, Jawaharlal (b. Nov. 14, 1889, Allahabad, India—d. May 27, 1964, New Delhi) First prime minister of independent India (1947-64). Son of the independence advocate Motilal Nehru (1861—

1931), Nehru was educated at home and in Britain and became a lawyer in 1912. More interested in politics than law, he was impressed by Mohandas K. Gandhi’s approach to Indian inde¬ pendence. His close association with the Indian National Congress began in 1919; in 1929 he became its presi¬ dent, presiding over the historic Lahore session that proclaimed com¬ plete independence (rather than dominion status) as India’s political goal. He was imprisoned nine times between 1921 and 1945 for his politi¬ cal activity. When India was granted limited self-government in 1935, the Congress Party under Nehru refused to form coalition governments with the Muslim League in some provinces; the hardening of relations between Hindus and Muslims that followed ultimately led to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan. Shortly before Gandhi’s assassination in 1948, Nehru became the first prime minister of independent India. He attempted a foreign policy of nonalignment during the Cold War, drawing harsh criticism if he appeared to favour either camp. During his tenure, India clashed with Pakistan over the Kashmir region and with China over the Brahmaputra River valley. He wrested Goa from the Portuguese. Domestically, he promoted democracy, socialism, secularism, and unity, adapting modern values to Indian conditions. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, became prime minister two years after his death.

Nei Monggol See Inner Mongolia

Nefertiti, painted limestone bust, about 1350 bc; in the Egyptian Museum, Ber-

BILDARCHIV PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESITZ, AGYPTISCHES MUSEUM, STAATUCHE MUSEEN ZU BERUN-PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESITZ, BERLIN; PHOTOGRAPH, JURGEN LIEPE

Jawaharlal Nehru, photograph by Yousuf Karsh, 1956.

© KARSH-RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Neilson ► nene I 1341

Neilson Vnel-ssnV James Beaumont (b. June 22,1792, Shettleston, Lanark, Scot.—d. Jan. 18, 1865, Queenshill, Kirkcudbright) Scottish inventor. Working at the Glasgow Gasworks (1817—47), he introduced the use of a hot-air blast for the smelting of iron ore. It had been believed that a blast of cold air was the most efficient smelting method (see William Fairbairn); Neilson demonstrated that the opposite was true, patenting his idea in 1828. Use of the hot blast tripled iron output per ton of coal, per¬ mitted iron to be recovered from lower-grade ores, and made possible the efficient use of raw coal and lower grades of coal instead of coke and the construction of larger smelting furnaces.

Neiman Marcus X.ne-mon-'mar-kosV U.S. department-store chain. It was founded in Dallas, Texas, in 1907 by Herbert Marcus, his sister Car¬ rie Marcus Neiman, and her husband, A.L. Neiman. From the beginning it featured unusual merchandise, particularly extravagant and outlandish gifts (including camels and Chinese junks) intended to appeal to the rich, in addition to a more standard selection for moderate-income customers. The company acquired luxury New York retailer Bergdorf Goodman in 1987. It also operates a mail-order business through catalogs.

Neith \'net\ Ancient Egyptian goddess, patroness of the city of Sais in the Nile River delta. Neith was worshiped in predynastic times (c. 3000 bc), and several queens of the 1 st dynasty were named after her. She also became an important goddess in the city of Memphis. She was usually depicted as a woman wearing a red crown, holding crossed arrows and a bow. She was the mother of Sebek and, later, of Re.

Nejd Vnezhd\ or Najd Vnazhd\ Region of central Saudi Arabia. Com¬ prising a rocky plateau sloping eastward from the mountains of the Hejaz, it is sparsely settled, except for a few fertile oases. In the mid-18th cen¬ tury it became the centre of the Wahhabi, members of a puritanical Islamic movement that by 1803 had expanded into Mecca. Nejd has been under the rule of the Sa c 0d dynasty almost continuously since 1824. It was united with the Hejaz and became the independent kingdom of Saudi Arabia in

Nelson, (John) Byron (b. Feb. 4, 1912, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.) U.S. golfer. “Lord Byron,” as he was known to the golf world, began his career as a caddie at the age of 12 and became a professional golfer in 1932. He won the U.S. Open (1939), the Masters (1937, 1942), and the PGA cham¬ pionship (1940, 1945), setting records in 1945 when he won 18 out of 30 tournaments, 11 in succession.

Nelson, Horatio Nelson, Viscount known as Lord Nelson (b.

Sept. 29, 1758, Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, Eng.—d. Oct. 21, 1805, at sea, off Cape Trafalgar, Spain) British naval commander. He entered the navy in 1770 and served in the West Indies from 1777 to 1783. In 1793 he was sent to support the British allies against the French in the Mediterranean. After the British victory against the Spanish and French in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797), he was promoted to rear admiral. In 1798 he pursued Napoleon’s fleet to Egypt, where he won the decisive Battle of the Nile. During a prolonged stay in Naples for his ships’ repairs, he pur¬ sued a love affair with Emma, Lady Hamilton. For helping restore the Neapolitan king Ferdinand I to power (1799), he was created duke di Bronte. As second in command of an expedition to attack Denmark, he skillfully won the Battle of Copenhagen (1801) and was appointed com¬ mander in chief of the navy. In 1805 he was sent to the Mediterranean to meet the threat posed by the French fleet in Napoleon’s scheme to invade England. In the ensuing Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson, aboard his flagship Victory, was shot by a French sniper from the Redoutable and died just as the British fleet secured its victory. His death was widely mourned, and he became England’s most popular hero. His brilliant tactical command assured British naval supremacy for over 100 years.

Nelson, Willie (b. April 30, 1933, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.) U.S. coun¬ try music singer and songwriter. His grandfather taught him to play gui¬ tar, and by age 10 he was performing at local dances. After working as a disc jockey, in 1961 he moved to Nashville, Tenn., where he wrote hit songs for dozens of country, rhythm-and-blues, and pop singers; these songs include “Hello Walls,” “Night Life,” and “Crazy.” Returning to Texas, he released the hit album Red Headed Stranger (1975); it was fol¬ lowed by Wanted: The Outlaws, which outsold every country album that had preceded it, and Stardust (1978), with songs by Hoagy Carmichael and Irving Berlin. He has recorded with at least 75 other singers, including Waylon Jennings (b. 1937). In the 1980s he organized annual Farm Aid festivals to raise money for farmers. His later albums include the criti¬ cally acclaimed Teatro (1998).

Nelson River River, north-central Manitoba, Canada. Flowing out of northern Lake Winnipeg into Hudson Bay, it is 400 mi (644 km) long. It was discovered in 1612 by the English explorer Thomas Button, and a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company was established there c. 1670. Fur traders used the river as an inland route. The Hudson Bay Railway now follows most of the river’s course.

Neman Vne-man\ River Lithuanian Nemunas \ , ne-mii- l nas\ Belaru¬ sian Nyoman River, central Europe. Rising in Belarus, south of Minsk, it flows west into Lithuania and between Lithuania and Kaliningrad prov¬ ince, Russia, to empty into the Baltic Sea. It is 582 mi (937 km) long and navigable for most of its length. It was known as the Memel River in the former eastern Prussia and as the Russ 22 mi (35 km) from its mouth. It was the scene of many battles between Russian and German forces in World War I.

Nemea, Battle of Vne-me-9\ (394 bc) Battle in the Corinthian War (395-387 bc). The conflict took place when a coalition of Greek city-states determined to destroy Sparta’s ascendancy after its victory in the Pelopon¬ nesian War. The outnumbered Spartans were victorious, crushing first the Athenians and then the Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives.

Nemerov \ , nem-ar-,6f\, Howard (b. March 1, 1920, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 5, 1991, University City, near St. Louis, Mo.) U.S. poet. He attended Harvard University and served as a pilot in World War II before teaching at various colleges, including Bennington. His verse, marked by irony and self-deprecatory wit, is often about nature; it appeal’s in several volumes beginning with The Image and the Law (1947) and including Collected Poems (1977, Pulitzer Prize, National Book Award). His fiction includes The Homecoming Game (1957) and A Commodity of Dreams and Other Stories (1960). He was poet laureate of the U.S. (1988-90). His sister Diane Arbus was a notable photographer.

Nemesis Vne-mo-sosN Greek goddess of retribution. In the earliest Greek religion she was worshiped as a fertility goddess. Later legends told how Zeus, in the form of a swan, coupled with her in the form of a goose. Nemesis then laid the egg from which Helen of Troy was born (in other versions Leda was said to be Helen’s mother). Nemesis dealt out punishments that expressed the gods’ disapproval of human presumption. Her cult was also popular in Rome, particularly among soldiers.

Nemi Vna-me\, Lake ancient Lacus Nemorensis Crater lake in the Alban Hills, southeast of Rome, Italy. Its area is about 0.67 sq mi (1.7 sq km), and it is 110 ft (34 m) deep. Nearby were a temple and grove sacred to the goddess Diana. Two ships dating from the reign of Caligula were raised from the lake bottom in the 1920s but were burned by the retreat¬ ing German army in 1944, toward the end of World War II.

Nen River formerly Nonni River River, northeastern China. It is the main tributary of the Sungari (Songhua) River. It rises on the eastern slopes of Da Hinggan Range in northern Heilongjiang province and flows south, forming part of the border between Heilongjiang and Jilin provinces and watering the fertile northern section of the Manchurian plain. It is about 740 mi (1,190 km) long and is an important route; much of it is navigable.

nene Vna-,na\ or Hawaiian goose Species {Branta sandvicensis ) of goose, the state bird of Hawaii. A close relative of the Canada goose, the

Nemanja, Stefan See Stefan Nemanja

nematode Vne-mo-.todN or roundworm Any of more than 15,000 named and many more unnamed species of worms in the class Nema- toda (phylum Aschelminthes).

Nematodes include plant and animal parasites and free-living forms found in soil, freshwater, saltwater, and even vinegar and beer malts. They are bilaterally symmetrical and usu¬ ally tapered at both ends. Some spe¬ cies have separate sexes; others are hermaphroditic. They range from microscopic to about 23 ft (7 m) long. Nematode parasites can occur

in almost any body organ but are JAVIER palaus soler-ostman agency _

most common in the digestive, cir¬ culatory, or respiratory system. Hookworms, pinworms, and eelworms are nematodes. See also filarial worm, guinea worm, trichina.

Nematode (Ascaris lumbricoides)

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nene is a nonmigratory, nonaquatic species with shortened wings and half-webbed feet. It is about 25 in. (65 cm) long and has a gray-brown barred body and black face. It feeds on berries and grasses on high lava slopes. Predation by introduced mammals (including dogs, cats, pigs, and mongooses) and human hunting had reduced the population to a few small flocks by 1911. It has since been successfully bred in captivity, but flocks released in the wild have failed to form self-sustaining colonies.

Nenni, Pietro (Sandro) (b. Feb. 9, 1891, Faenza, Italy—d. Jan. 1, 1980, Rome) Italian politician. He joined the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) in 1921 and edited its newspaper, Avanti! (1922-26). After criticizing the Fas¬ cist Party and Benito Mussolini, he was arrested and fled to Paris (1926). In the Spanish Civil War, he cofounded the Garibaldi Brigade. He was impris¬ oned in Germany and Italy in World War II, then became leader of the PSI; he led the left wing in alliance with the Communist Party until 1956. In 1963 he allied the PSI with the Christian Democrats and served as vice pre¬ mier in three successive cabinets and as foreign minister (1968-69).

Neo-Confucianism In China, a rationalistic revival of Confucianism in the 11th century that influenced Chinese thought for 800 years. The movement sought to reestablish the supremacy of the Confucian heritage over the increasingly popular Buddhism and Daoism. Its two principal schools of thought were the Lixue (School of Principle), whose chief phi¬ losopher was Zhu Xi, and the Xinxue (School of Mind), represented by Lu Xiangshan and Wang Yangming. Neo-Confucianism was introduced into Japan by Zen Buddhists and became the guiding philosophy of the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), providing a heavenly sanction for the exist¬ ing social order. Its emphasis on classical literature led to renewed inter¬ est in the Japanese classics and a revival of Shinto studies.

neo-Darwinism Theory of evolution that represents a synthesis of Charles Darwin’s theory in terms of natural selection and modern popu¬ lation genetics. The term was first used after 1896 to describe the theo¬ ries of August Weismann (1834-1914), who asserted that his germ-plasm theory made impossible the inheritance of acquired characteristics and supported natural selection as the only major process that would account for biological evolution.

Neo-Expressionism Art movement, chiefly of painters, that domi¬ nated the European and American art market in the early to mid-1980s. It was controversial both in the quality of its production and in the highly commercialized aspects of its presentation. Its practitioners, including Julian Schnabel and Anselm Kiefer, reacted to the highly intellectualized abstract art of the 1970s by creating dramatic, gestural paintings that incorporated some figurative elements and recognizable symbols. Their art was characterized by a tense yet playful presentation of objects in a “primitivist” manner, vivid colour harmonies, large scale, and a sense of inner tension and alienation. See also Expressionism.

Neo-Impressionism Movement in French painting of the late 19th century, in reaction against the realism of Impressionism. The Neo- Impressionists, led by Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, applied paint to canvas in dots of contrasting pigments, scientifically chosen so that adja¬ cent dots would blend from a distance into a single colour. The technique is known as pointillism. Whereas the Impressionists captured the fugitive effects of colour and light, the Neo-Impressionists crystallized them into immobile monumentality.

Neo-Kantianism Revival of Kantianism in German universities that began c. 1860. At first primarily an epistemological movement, Neo- Kantianism slowly extended over the whole domain of philosophy. The first decisive impetus toward reviving Immanuel Kant’s ideas came from natural scientists. Hermann von Helmholtz applied physiological studies of the senses to the question of the epistemological significance of spatial perception raised by The Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Neo-Kantianism reached its apex in the early 20th-century Marburg school, which included Hermann Cohen (1842-1918) and Paul Natorp (1854-1924). They repu¬ diated Helmholtz’s naturalism and reaffirmed the importance of the tran¬ scendental method. Ernst Cassirer, another Marburg-school figure, brought Kantian principles to bear on the whole realm of cultural phenomena. Wilhelm Windelband (1848-1915) and Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936) introduced Kantianism into the philosophy of history. Neo-Kantianism also influenced the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and of the early works of Martin Heidegger.

Neo-Paganism Any of several movements that attempt to revive the polytheistic religions of Europe and the Middle East. Largely a product

of the 1960s, contemporary Neo-Paganism has flourished particularly in the U.S., Britain, and Scandinavia. Its adherents often have deep ecologi¬ cal concerns and an attachment to nature; many worship an earth-mother goddess and center their rituals on the change of the seasons. Since the late 1970s, Neo-Paganism has also attracted feminists open to female per¬ sonifications of the deity. Major Neo-Pagan groups include the Church of All Worlds, Feraferia, Pagan Way, the Reformed Druids of North America, the Church of the Eternal Source, and the Viking Brotherhood. See also Wicca.

Neo-Thomism X.ne-o-'ta-.mi-zonA Modern revival of the philosophi¬ cal and theological system developed by St. Thomas Aquinas and his later commentators. Neo-Thomism follows Aquinas in distinguishing between the realms of nature (in which reason and philosophy hold sway) and supemature (in which faith and theology are dominant). Aquinas’s thought was presented in philosophy and theology courses or manuals, especially in the Dominican Order, through the 17th and 18th centuries, though most manuals of this period were watered with the opinions of other Schoolmen and remained remote from modern concerns. The mod¬ ern revival of authentic Thomism began in the 19th century under the influence of the Jesuits and the papacy, who sought a sound philosophi¬ cal foundation on which to develop responses to contemporary intellec¬ tual and social problems. After the mid-20th century neo-Thomists attempted to develop an adequate philosophy of science, to take into account the findings of phenomenology and psychiatry, and to evaluate the ontologies of existentialism and naturalism. See also Jacques AAaritain.

Neoclassical architecture Revival of Classical architecture during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The movement concerned itself with the logic of entire Classical volumes, unlike Classical revivalism (see Greek Revival), which tended to reuse Classical parts. Neoclassical archi¬ tecture is characterized by grandeur of scale; simplicity of geometric forms; Greek, especially Doric (see order), or Roman detail; dramatic use of columns; and a preference for blank walls. The new taste for antique simplicity represented a general reaction to the excesses of the Rococo style. Neoclassicism thrived in the U.S. and Europe, with examples occur¬ ring in almost every major city. Russia’s Catherine II transformed St. Petersburg into an unparalleled collection of Neoclassical buildings as advanced as any contemporary French and English work. By 1800 nearly all new British architecture reflected the Neoclassical spirit (see Robert Adam; John Soane). France’s boldest innovator was Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, who had a central role in the evolution of Neoclassical architec¬ ture. In the U.S. Neoclassicism continued to flourish throughout the 19th century, as many architects looked to make the analogy between the young country and imperial Rome when designing major government buildings. The style also spread to colonial Latin America.

Neoclassicism See Classicism and Neoclassicism

neoconservatism U.S. political movement. It originated in the 1960s among conservatives and some liberals who were repelled by or disillu¬ sioned with what they viewed as the political and cultural trends of the time, including leftist political radicalism, lack of respect for authority and tradition, and hedonistic and immoral lifestyles. Neoconservatives generally advocate a free-market economy with minimum taxation and government economic regulation; strict limits on government-provided social-welfare programs; and a strong military supported by large defense budgets. Neoconservatives also believe that government policy should respect the importance of traditional institutions such as religion and the family. Unlike most conservatives of earlier generations, neoconserva¬ tives maintain that the United States should take an active role in world affairs, though they are generally suspicious of international institutions, such as the United Nations and the World Court, whose authority could intrude upon American sovereignty or limit the country’s freedom to act in its own interests. See also conservatism.

neodymium Metallic chemical element, chemical symbol Nd, atomic number 60. Silvery white in colour, it is a rare earth metal and one of the lanthanide series. It is a component of important alloys, among them misch metal (15% neodymium), used in lighter flints and various metallurgical processes. Alloyed with iron and boron, neodymium is the basis for pow¬ erful permanent magnets used in computer hard drives, lightweight ear¬ phones, and numerous other applications. Neodymium compounds are employed as ceramics glazes. The crude oxide counteracts the greenish cast imparted to glass by iron contaminants, and a very pure oxide is used to make a vivid purple glass. Neodymium is added to glass or other host

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neofascism ► nephrite I 1343

materials to form the active elements for certain solid-state lasers. Glass containing a mixture of neodymium and praseodymium (another rare earth element) is used in glassblowers’ goggles.

neofascism Political philosophy and movement that arose in Europe in the decades following World War II. Like earlier fascist movements, neofascism advocated extreme nationalism, opposed liberal individual¬ ism, attacked Marxist and other left-wing ideologies, indulged in racist and xenophobic scapegoating, and promoted populist right-wing eco¬ nomic programs. Unlike the fascists, however, neofascists placed more blame for their countries’ problems on non-European immigrants than on leftists and Jews, displayed little interest in taking lebensraum (German: “living space”) through the military conquest of other states, and made concerted efforts to portray themselves as democratic and “mainstream.” The National Front in France, led by Jean-Marie Le Pen, and the Liberal- Democratic Party in Russia, led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky, are often cited as neofascist.

Neolithic \,ne-9-'li-thik\ Period or New Stone Age Final stage of technological development or cultural evolution among prehistoric humans. It is characterized by the use of stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, the domestication of plants or animals, the establishment of permanent villages, and the practice of such crafts as pottery and weav¬ ing. The Neolithic followed the Paleolithic Period (and in northwestern Europe the Mesolithic) and preceded the Bronze Age. Its beginning is associated with the villages that emerged in South Asia c. 9000 bc and flourished in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys from c. 7000 bc. Farm¬ ing spread northward throughout Eurasia, reaching Britain and Scandi¬ navia only after 3000 bc. Neolithic technologies also spread to the Indus River valley of India by 5000 bc and to the Huang Ho valley of China by c. 3500 bc. The term is not applied to the New World, though Neolithic modes of life were achieved independently there by c. 2500 bc.

neon Chemical element, chemical symbol Ne, atomic number 10. One of the noble GASes, neon is colourless, odourless, tasteless, and completely unreactive. It occurs in minute amounts in the atmosphere and is obtained by fractional distillation of liquefied air. When under low pressure, it glows a bright orange-red if an electric current is passed through it. It was dis¬ covered in 1898, and since the 1920s its chief use has been in luminous tubes and bulbs.

neoplasm See tumor

Neoplatonism Form of Platonism developed by Plotinus in the 3rd century ad and modified by his successors. It came to dominate the Greek philosophical schools and remained predominant until the teaching of philosophy by pagans ended in the late 6th century. It postulated an all- sufficient unity, the One, from which emanated the Divine Mind, or LOGOS, and below that, the World Soul. Those transcendent realities were thought to support the visible world. All things emanated from the One, and indi¬ vidual souls could rise to mystical union with the One through contem¬ plation. Though Plotinus’s thought in some respects resembles Gnosticism, he was passionately opposed to that doctrine.

neoprene \'ne-3-,pren\ Any of a class of elastomers (rubberlike syn¬ thetic organic compounds of high molecular weight) made by polymeriza¬ tion of the monomer 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene and vulcanized (cross-linked, like rubber), by sulfur, metallic oxides, or other agents. These synthetic rubbers, discovered in 1931 (see W.H. Carothers), are generally too expensive to use in making tires, but their resistance to chemicals and oxidation (see oxidation-reduction) makes them valuable in specialized applications, including shoe soles, hoses, adhesives, gaskets, seals, and foamed articles.

Neorealism or neorealismo Italian aesthetic movement that flour¬ ished especially after World War II. It sought to deal realistically with the events leading up to the war and with their resulting social problems. Rooted in the 1920s, it was similar to the verismo (“realism”) movement, from which it originated, but differed in that its upsurge resulted from the intense feelings inspired by fascist repression, the Resistance, and the war. Neorealist writers include Italo Calvino, Alberto Moravia, and Cesare Pavese. During the fascist years many Neorealist writers went into hiding, were imprisoned or exiled, or joined the Resistance. The movement reemerged in full strength after the war. Neorealism in film embraced a documentary-like objectivity; actors were often amatuers, and the action centred on commonplace situations. Often crudely and hastily made, Neo¬ realist productions stood in stark contrast to traditional escapist feature

films. Two notable examples of Neorealist films are Roberto Rossellini’s Open City (1945) and Vittorio De Sica’s The Bicycle Thief { 1948).

Neosho \ne-'o-sho\ River or Grand River River, southeastern Kan¬ sas and northeastern Oklahoma, U.S. It rises in east-central Kansas and flows into Oklahoma, where it is also known as the Grand, to join the Arkansas River near Fort Gibson. It flows about 460 mi (740 km). Neosho is an Osage Indian word meaning “clear and abundant water.” The crossing of the river at Council Grove was a starting point for the Santa Fe Trail.

Nepal \no-'p61\ officially Kingdom of Nepal Country, southern Asia. Area: 56,827 sq mi (147,181 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 27,133,000. Capital: Kathmandu. Most of the people are Nepalese of Indo-

Aryan ancestry; there is a significant minor¬ ity of Tibeto-Nepalese peoples. Languages:

Nepali (official), English, various others.

Religions: Hinduism (official); also Bud¬ dhism, Islam. Currency: Nepalese rupee.

Nepal contains some of the most rugged mountainous terrain in the world. The Great Himalayas, including Mount Everest, are in its central and north¬ ern parts. As a result of its years of geographic and self-imposed isola¬ tion, it is one of the world’s least-developed countries. Its market economy is mostly based on agriculture, including livestock raising; tourism is also important. Nepal is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parlia¬ ment; its chief of state is the king, and the head of government is the prime minister. The region developed under early Buddhist influence, and dynastic rule dates from about the 4th century ad. It was formed into a single kingdom in 1769 and fought border wars with China, Tibet, and British India in the 18th—19th centuries. Its independence was recognized by Britain in 1923. A new constitution in 1990 restricted royal authority and accepted a democratically elected parliamentary government. Nepal signed trade agreements with India in 1997. The country was stunned in 2001 when the crown prince killed most members of the royal family, including himself.

nepheline \'ne-f3-,len\ or nephelite Most common feldspathoid min¬ eral, an aluminosilicate of sodium and potassium (Na 3 KAl 4 Si 4 0 16 ). It is sometimes used as a substitute for feldspars in the manufacture of glass and ceramics.

nepheline syenite VsI-o-.nltV Medium- to coarse-grained igneous rock, a member of the alkali-syenite group, which consists largely of feldspar and nepheline. Nepheline syenite from Canada is used to replace feldspar in the manufacture of ceramic and glass products.

nephrite \ , ne-,frit\ Gem-quality, usually green silicate mineral in the tremolite-actinolite-ferrotremolite series of amphiboles. It is the less prized

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but more common of the two types of jade and may be distinguished from jadeite by its splintery fracture and oily lustre. Nephrite occurs in low- grade (formed under low-temperature, low-pressure conditions), region¬ ally metamorphosed rocks. Important deposits occur in China, Siberia, New Zealand, Switzerland, Alaska, and Wyoming.

nephritis \ni-'fri-t9s\ Inflammation of the kidneys. There are numerous kinds, involving different kidney tissues. The most common type is Bright disease. Symptoms vary with the type of nephritis; severe cases can result in kidney failure. Causes include infection, allergy or autoimmune disease, blockage in the urinary system, and hereditary diseases. Treatment addresses the cause where possible.

nephrology \ni-'fra-b-je\ Branch of medicine dealing with kidney func¬ tion and diseases. An understanding of kidney physiology is important not only in treating kidney disease but in knowing the effect of drugs, diet, and hypertension on kidney disease, and vice versa. The first scien¬ tific observations of the kidney were made in the mid-17th century by Lorenzo Bellini (1643-1704) and Marcello Malpighi; Carl Ludwig was the first to elaborate on their true physiological function (1844). A key devel¬ opment in nephrology was the permanent arteriovenous shunt (1960), which made repeated hemodialysis feasible, instantly changing the out¬ look for chronic-renal-disease patients from certain death to 90% survival. See also dialysis, kidney failure, kidney stone, kidney transplant, nephron.

nephron Functional unit of the kidney that removes waste and excess substances from the blood to produce urine. Each of the million or so nephrons in each kidney is a tubule 1.2-2.2 in. (30-55 mm) long. At one end it is closed, expanded, and folded into a double-walled cuplike struc¬ ture (Bowman’s capsule) enclosing a cluster of capillaries (glomerulus). Fluid forced out of the blood through the capillary walls of the glomer¬ ulus into Bowman’s capsule flows into the adjacent renal tubule, where water and nutrients are selectively reabsorbed from the fluid back into the blood, and electrolytes such as sodium and potassium are balanced in sev¬ eral distinct sections along its length. The final concentrated product is urine. See also urinary system.

Neptune Eighth planet from the Sun, discovered in 1846 and named for the Roman god of the sea. It has an average distance from the Sun of 2.8 billion mi (4.5 billion km), taking nearly 164 years to complete one orbit and rotating every 16.11 hours. Neptune has more than 17 times Earth’s mass, 58 times its volume, and 12% stronger gravity at the top of its atmosphere. It has an equatorial diameter of 30,775 mi (49,528 km). Nep¬ tune consists largely of hydrogen and helium. It has no solid surface; its interior is believed to consist of a fluid mixture of rock, ices, and gas. Its atmosphere contains substantial amounts of methane gas, whose absorp¬ tion of red light causes Neptune’s deep blue-green colour. The Voyager 2 space probe in 1989 discovered winds of over 1,570 mi/hour (700 m/second), the fastest known for any of the Sun’s planets, and dark spots that appear to be storms similar to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot. Neptune receives little solar radiation, but it radiates substantially more energy than it receives, which indicates an internal heat source. Neptune’s weak magnetic field traps charged par¬ ticles in a belt around the planet.

Neptune has a system of rings, made up largely of dust-size particles, and at least 13 moons; the largest is Tri¬ ton, almost as big as Earth’s Moon.

Neptune In Roman religion, the god of water. Neptune was originally the god of fresh water, but by 399 bc he was identified with the Greek god Poseidon and thus became a deity of the sea. His female counterpart, Sala- cia, probably began as a goddess of spring water but was later equated with the Greek goddess Amphitrite.

Neptune’s festival (Neptunalia) took place in the heat of summer (July 23),

when fresh water was scarcest. In art Neptune is often given Poseidon’s attributes, the trident and dolphin.

Nerbudda River See Narmada River

Nerchinsk, Treaty of (1689) Peace settlement between Russia and Qing-dynasty China that checked Russia’s eastward expansion. Russia lost easy access to the Sea of Okhotsk but gained the right of passage to Beijing for its trade caravans. The treaty also gained China’s implied rec¬ ognition of Russia as a state of equal status, something other European countries could not accomplish. The Nerchinsk treaty was the basis of Russo-Chinese relations until 1858-60.

Nereid \'nir-e-od\ In Greek mythology, any of the daughters of the sea god Nereus and of Doris, daughter of Oceanus. The Nereids, who num¬ bered 50 or 100, were depicted as young girls who inhabited any water, salt or fresh, and were benign toward humanity. They were popular fig¬ ures in Greek literature. The best known were Amphitrite, consort of Poseidon; Thetis, wife of Peleus (king of the Myrmidons) and mother of Achilles; and Galatea, a Sicilian loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus.

Nereus \'nir-e-3s\ Greek sea god. The son of Pontus (a personification of the sea) and Gaea, he was noted for his gift of prophecy and his ability to change his shape. He lived at the bot¬ tom of the sea with his daughters, the Nereids. Heracles wrestled with him in a variety of shapes in order to gain his advice about recovering the golden apples of the Hesperides.

Nergal In Mesopotamian religion, a secondary god of the Sumero- Akkadian pantheon. He was identi¬ fied with Irra, the god of scorched earth and war, and with Meslamtaea.

The city of Cuthah was the center of his cult. In the 1st millennium bc he was described as a benefactor who hears prayers, restores the dead to life, and protects agriculture and flocks. Later he was called a “destroy¬ ing flame” and was depicted as a god of pestilence, hunger, and devas¬ tation. The other sphere of Nergal’s power was the underworld, where he ruled as king and where the goddess Ereshkigal was his queen.

Neri \'na-re. Saint Philip (b. July 21, 1515, Florence—d. May 26, 1595, Rome; canonized 1622; feast day May 26) Roman Catholic mys¬ tic. He went to Rome to pursue religious studies in 1533. In 1548 he cofounded a society of laymen dedicated to the care of pilgrims, the poor, and the sick. After his ordination in 1551 he moved to the community of San Girolamo della Carita in Rome. From 1564 to 1575 he was rector of the church of San Giovanni, and in 1575 Gregory XIII granted him Santa Maria in Vallicella, where he established his Congregation of the Oratory, a group of priests and clerics engaged in devotion and charitable activi¬ ties. One of the outstanding mystics of the Counter-Reformation, he was noted for his eloquence as a preacher.

Nernst Vnemst\, Walther Hermann (b. June 25, 1864, Briesen, Prussia—d. Nov. 18, 1941, Muskau, Ger.) German scientist, one of the founders of modern physical chemistry. He taught at the Universities of Gottingen and Berlin until forced to retire in 1933 by the Nazi regime. Nernst’s researches on the theory of electric cells (see battery), the ther¬ modynamics of chemical equilibrium, the properties of vapours at high temperatures and of solids at low temperatures, and the mechanism of photochemistry have had important applications. His formulation of the third law of thermodynamics gained him a 1920 Nobel Prize. He also invented an improved electric light and an electronically amplified piano.

Nero in full Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus (or Drusus) Germanicus orig. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (b. Dec. 15, ad 37, Antium, Latium—d. June 9, 68, Rome) Roman emperor (54-68). He was adopted by Claudius when the emperor married Nero’s mother, Agrippina the Younger, and took the throne after Claudius died. He was guided by his tutor, Seneca, and by Agrippina until he murdered her and broke free of his advisers. By respecting the Senate and leaving imperial administration alone, he became popular in the east, but Boudicca’s revolt in Britain (61), unemployment, and contempt for his frivolousness and excesses caused dissatisfaction. In 64 a fire, possibly lit at his orders,

Neptune holding his trident, classical sculpture; in the Lateran Museum, Rome

AUNARI—ART RESOURCE

Nereus struggling with Heracles, detail from a Greek water jar found at Vulci, c. 490 bc; in the British Museum

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Nerses ► Nesselrode I 1345

destroyed much of Rome; he perse¬ cuted the Christians as scapegoats and proceeded to build a garish pal¬ ace, the Domus Aurea, on lands that had been privately held. With his reign in decline, he murdered his wife, Octavia, as well as her succes¬ sor, Poppaea, ordered Seneca to kill himself, and executed senators who criticized him. Revolts in Gaul and Spain were led by Galba, who was declared emperor by his army. Nero came to be regarded as mad, giving public lyre and theatrical perfor¬ mances to the disgust of his subjects.

Condemned by the Senate, he chose suicide over execution.

Nerses \'ner-sez\ I the Great,

Saint (b. c. 310—d. 373?; feast day,

February 19) Patriarch of the Arme¬ nian church from c. 353. A descen¬ dant of St. Gregory the Illuminator (240-332), Nerses became the most important figure in Armenia during his patriarchate, establishing monastic and charitable institutions and schools. He was a supporter of King Pap of Armenia but broke with him over his fostering of religious ties with the court of Constantinople, which led to Pap’s instigating the murder of Nerses.

Nerthus \'ner-thus\ Ancient Germanic goddess. Tacitus refers to her as Mother Earth and says she was worshiped by seven tribes. Her worship centered on a temple in a sacred grove on an island in the Baltic Sea. She was believed to enjoy visiting her people. Her presence was discerned by her priest, and while she was among them her people lived in peace. Her identification with the god Njord suggests that she may have been a her¬ maphrodite.

Neruda \na-'ru-tha\, Pablo orig. Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto (b. July 12, 1904, Parral,

Chile—d. Sept. 23, 1973, Santiago)

Chilean poet and diplomat. He began writing poetry at age 10, and at 20 he published his most widely read work, Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair (1924), inspired by an unhappy love affair. In 1927 he was named an honorary consul, and he later represented Chile in several Asian and Latin American countries; late in life he was ambassador to France. While in Asia he began Resi¬ dence on Earth (1933, 1935, 1947), a verse cycle remarkable for its examination of social decay and per¬ sonal isolation. In 1945 he was elected senator and joined the Com¬ munist Party; he later spent years in exile when the government turned toward the right. Canto General (1950), his great epic poem about the American continents, was deeply influenced by Walt Whitman and is the culminating expression of his political beliefs. Elemental Odes (1954) celebrates common, everyday objects. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971.

Nerva Vnor-voV in full Nerva Caesar Augustus orig. Marcus Cocceius Nerva (b. c. ad 35—d. Jan. 28, 98) Roman emperor (96-98), first of the Five Good Emperors. A member of a distinguished senatorial family, Nerva served twice as consul (71, 90). After an undistinguished career, he was chosen to succeed Domitian because of his age, dignity, and lack of children who would succeed him. He rejected Domitian’s autocratic tyranny but completed Domitian’s building projects and instituted his administrative and financial reforms. He adopted Trajan as his heir.

nerve See neuron

nerve gas Weapon of chemical warfare that affects the transmission of nerve impulses through the nervous system. The organophosphorus nerve agents Tabun, Sarin, and Soman were developed by Germany during World War II but not used. They and a newer agent, VX, were produced in huge quantities by the U.S. and Soviet Union during the Cold War; their stockpiling and use during war are now banned by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. A single droplet of VX or Sarin, if inhaled or in contact with the skin, can be absorbed into the bloodstream and paralyze the nervous system, leading to respiratory failure and immedi¬ ate death. Sarin was used in 1995 in a lethal attack in the Tokyo subways by members of AUM Shinrikyo.

Nervi Vner-ve\, Pier Luigi (b. June 21, 1891, Sondrio, Italy—d. Jan. 9, 1979, Rome) Italian engineer and building contractor. He became inter¬ nationally renowned for his invention of ferro-cement, a material of his own invention composed of dense concrete heavily reinforced with evenly distributed steel mesh that together give it both lightness and strength. His first significant projects included a series of airplane hangars in Italy (1935-41) conceived as concrete vaults with huge spans. In addition to designing buildings, he succeeded in building a sailboat with a ferro- cement hull only 0.5 in. (1.25 cm) thick. Ferro-cement was vital to his complex for the Turin Exhibition (1949-50), a prefabricated, corrugated cylindrical 309-ft (93-m) arch. Nervi worked on the UNESCO headquar¬ ters in Paris (1950) with Marcel Breuer and helped design Italy’s first sky¬ scraper, the Pirelli Building in Milan (1955-59). Although Nervi’s primary concern was never aesthetic, many of his works nonetheless achieved remarkable expressive force.

nervous system System of specialized cells (neurons, or nerve cells) that conduct stimuli from a sensory receptor through a neuron network to the site (e.g., a gland or muscle) where the response occurs. In humans, it consists of the central and peripheral nervous systems, the former con¬ sisting of the brain and spinal cord and the latter of the nerves, which carry impulses to and from the central nervous system. The cranial nerves handle head and neck sensory and motor activities, except the vagus nerve, which conducts signals to visceral organs. Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by a sensory and a motor root. These exit between the vertebrae and merge to form a large mixed nerve, which branches to supply a defined area of the body. Disorders include amyo¬ trophic LATERAL SCLEROSIS, CHOREA, EPILEPSY, MYASTHENIA GRAVIS, NEURAL TUBE DEFECT, parkinsonism, and poliomyelitis. Effects of disorders range from transient tics and minor personality changes to major personality disruptions, seizures, paralysis, and death.

Nesiotes See Critius and Nesiotes

Ness, Eliot (b. April 19, 1903, Chicago—d. May 7, 1957, Coudersport, Pa.) U.S. law-enforcement official. He was 26 years old when he was hired as a special agent of the U.S. Department of Justice to head its Chicago Prohibition bureau, with the express purpose of breaking up the bootleg¬ ging network of Al Capone. He formed a nine-man team of extremely dedicated and unbribable officers, “the Untouchables”; the evidence they collected helped send Capone to prison for income-tax evasion in 1931. After Prohibition was ended in 1933, Ness headed the alcohol-tax unit of the U.S. Treasury department (1933-35); he was later director of public safety in Cleveland (1935—41) and director of a division of the Federal Security Agency (1941-45).

Ness, Loch Lake, Highland council area, Scotland. It is 788 ft (240 m) deep and about 23 mi (36 km) long and has the largest volume of fresh water in Britain. It forms part of the Caledonian Canal system developed by Thomas Telford. On its shores are remains of two fortresses. Surface oscillations, or seiches, caused by differential heating, are common. Reports of an aquatic monster inhabiting Loch Ness date back centuries but remain unproved.

Nesselrode \nyis-syil y -Tod-yi,\ English Vne-s3l-,rod\, Karl (Robert Vasilyevich), Count (b. Dec. 13, 1780, Lisbon, Port.—d. March 23, 1862, St. Petersburg, Russia) Russian statesman. After serving in the Rus¬ sian diplomatic service, he acted as minister of foreign affairs (1822-56) and as chancellor (1845-62). He sought to influence the Ottoman Empire with the Treaty of Hunkar isKELESi (1833) and the Straits Convention (1841). He supported aid to Austria in suppressing the Hungarian upris¬ ing (1848). His policy of promoting Russia’s influence in the Balkans helped precipitate the Crimean War. He negotiated the subsequent treaty at the Congress of Paris.

Nero, portrait bust; in the Roman National Museum, Rome.

ANDERSON-AUNARI FROM ART RESOURCE

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nest Structure built by an animal as a permanent home or for bearing and rearing offspring. The social insects build systems of chambers and tunnels, above or below ground.

Fishes’ nests vary from shallow depressions in sand to enclosed structures constructed of vegetation.

Certain frog species build mud-basin nests or floating masses of hardened froth. Alligators use mud and veg¬ etation and cobras use leaves and forest litter to build a nest for their eggs. The most common type of bird nest is a cup-shaped or domed struc¬ ture of twigs, leaves, mud, and feath¬ ers. Many mammals, especially small ones, build nests in trees, on the ground, or in burrows.

Nestle SA Multinational manufac¬ turer of food products. Headquar¬ tered in Vevey, Switz., it operates branches and subsidiaries in more than 70 countries. Its products include condensed and powdered milk, baby foods, chocolate, cheese, instant coffee and tea, condiments, and frozen foods. Its history dates to 1866, when two Swiss firms were established, the Anglo-Swiss Con¬ densed Milk Co. and a company founded by Henri Nestle to manufacture the first infant formula. In 1905 they merged to become the Nestle and Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Co. Nestle created the first milk chocolate and in 1937 the first instant coffee, which it produced under the name Nescafe. It acquired various other firms, including Crosse & Blackwell in 1960, Stouffer Corp. in 1973, Carnation Co. in 1984, and Ralston Purina pet foods in 2001. Acquisitions have helped the company maintain its ranking as the world’s largest food company. Nestle adopted its present name in 1977.

Nestor In Greek legend, the king of Pylos in Eus. All his brothers were killed by Heracles, but Nestor survived. In Homer’s Iliad he appeared as an elder statesman who entertained the warriors with tales of his youth¬ ful exploits. He brought 90 ships to aid the Greeks in their war against Troy. When, at the war’s end, the Greeks sailed for home, Nestor went in a different direction and missed the storm Athena sent to disperse their ships. In the Odyssey Telemachus, son of Odysseus, came to Elis looking for his father, and Nestor entertained him.

Nestorian Member of a Christian sect that originated in Asia Minor and Syria in the 5th century ad, inspired by the views of Nestorius. Nesto- rians stressed the independence of Christ’s divine and human natures. Nestorian scholars played a prominent role in the formation of Arab cul¬ ture after the Arab conquest of Persia; Nestorianism also spread to India, China, Egypt, and Central Asia, where certain tribes were almost entirely converted. Today the Nestorians are represented by the Church of the East, or Persian church, usually referred to in the West as the Assyrian or Nestorian church. Most of its members, who number more than 200,000, live in Iraq, Syria, and Iran.

Nestorius (b. 4th century, Germanicia, Syria Euphratensis, Asia Minor—d. c. 451, Panopolis, Egypt) Founder of Nestorian Christianity. Born of Persian parents, he studied in Antioch and was ordained a priest. As bishop of Constantinople from 428, he aroused controversy when he objected to Cyril of Alexandria’s granting Mary the title of Theotokos (“God-Bearer”), which he believed compromised Christ’s full humanity. In 431 the Council of Ephesus condemned his teaching as heresy on the ground that he denied the reality of Christ’s incarnation, and Nestorius went into exile, first in the Libyan desert and then in Upper Egypt. Nesto¬ rianism was adopted by the Persian church, whose members still adhere to his ideas.

Nestos River or Mesta River River, southwestern Bulgaria and northeastern Greece. It rises in the northwestern Rhodope Mountains and flows southeast for 150 mi (240 km) into the northern Aegean Sea oppo¬ site the island of ThAsos. As it crosses the Bulgarian frontier into Greece, it divides Macedonia from Thrace.

Netherlands, Austrian See Austrian Netherlands

Netherlands, Republic of the United See Dutch Republic Netherlands, Spanish See Spanish Netherlands

Netherlands, The officially Kingdom of The Netherlands byname Holland Country, northwestern Europe. Area: 16,034 sq mi (41,528 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 16,300,000. Capital: Amsterdam.

Nest of the American robin.

JEFF FOOTT/BRUCE COLEMAN INC.

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SCHOUWEN uororecnt NATIONAL PARK

Seat of government: The Hague. Most of the people are Dutch. Languages: Dutch (official), English. Religions: Christianity (Roman Catholic, Protestant); also Islam.

Currency: euro. The Netherlands’ southern and eastern region consists mostly of plains and a few high ridges; its western and northern region is lower and includes polders on the site of the Zuiderzee and the common delta of the Rhine, Meuse, and Schelde riv¬ ers. Coastal areas are almost completely below sea level and are protected by dunes and artificial dikes. Although densely populated, the country has a low birthrate. Its developed market economy is based largely on finan¬ cial services, light and heavy industries, and trade. It is a constitutional monarchy with a parliament comprising two legislative houses; its chief of state is the monarch, and the head of government is the prime minis¬ ter. Celtic and Germanic tribes inhabited the region at the time of the Roman conquest. Under the Romans trade and industry flourished, but by the mid-3rd century ad Roman power had waned, eroded by resurgent Germanic tribes and the encroachment of the sea. A Germanic invasion (406^107) ended Roman control. The Merovingian dynasty followed the Romans but was supplanted in the 7th century by the Carolingian dynasty, which converted the area to Christianity. After Charlemagne’s death in 814, the area was increasingly the target of Viking attacks. It became part of the medieval kingdom of Lotharingia (see Lorraine), which avoided incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire by investing its bishops and abbots with secular powers, leading to the establishment of an Imperial Church. Beginning in the 12th century, much land was reclaimed from the sea as dike building occurred on a large scale; Flanders developed as a textiles centre. The dukes of Burgundy gained control in the late 14th century. By the early 16th century the Low Countries came to be ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs. The Dutch had taken the lead in fishing and shipbuilding, which laid the foundation for Holland’s remarkable 17th- century prosperity. Culturally, this was the period of Jan van Eyck, Tho¬ mas a Kempis, and Desiderius Erasmus. Calvinism and Anabaptist doctrines attracted many followers. In 1581 the seven northern provinces, led by Calvinists, declared their independence from Spain, and in 1648, follow¬ ing the Thirty Years' War, Spain recognized Dutch independence. The 17th century was the golden age of Dutch civilization. Benedict de Spinoza and Rene Descartes enjoyed the intellectual freedom, and Rembrandt and Johannes Vermeer painted their masterpieces. The Dutch East India Co.

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Netherlands Antilles » neural tube defect I 1347

secured Asian colonies, and the country’s standard of living soared. In the 18th century Dutch maritime power declined; the region was conquered by the French during the French revolutionary wars and became the King¬ dom of Holland under Napoleon (1806). The Netherlands remained neu¬ tral in World War I and declared neutrality in World War II but was occupied by Germany. After the war it lost the Netherlands Indies (Indo¬ nesia from 1949) and Netherlands New Guinea (in 1962; now Irian Jaya). It joined NATO in 1949 and was a founding member of the European Eco¬ nomic Community (later renamed the European Community and now embedded in the European Union). At the outset of the 21st century The Netherlands benefitted from a strong, highly regulated mixed economy but struggled with the social and economic challenges of immigration.

Netherlands Antilles \an-'ti-lez\ formerly Curacao \,kur-9-'so, ,kyur-9-'sau\ Nonmetropolitan island territory of The Netherlands (pop., 2005 est.: 183,000), in the Caribbean Sea. Area: 308 sq mi (800 sq km). It consists of two widely separated groups of islands: Sint Eustatius, the southern section of St. Martin, and Saba making up the northern group, at the northern end of the Leeward Islands; and Curacao and Bonaire (and also Aruba until 1986) constituting the southern group, about 500 mi (800 km) to the southwest, off the coast of Venezuela. The capital, on Curasao, is Willemstad. Originally inhabited by Arawak and Carib Indians, the islands were encountered in the late 15th century and claimed for Spain. In the 17th century the Dutch gained control, and in 1845 the islands became the Netherlands Antilles. In 1954 they became an integral part of The Netherlands, with full autonomy in domestic affairs. Aruba seceded from the federation in 1986.

Neto Vna-tu\, (Antonio) Agostinho (b. Sept. 17, 1922, Icolo e Bengo, Angola—4. Sept. 10, 1979, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Poet, phy¬ sician, and first president of Angola. In 1948 Neto joined a movement aimed at rediscovering indigenous Angolan culture. He studied medicine in Lisbon and returned to Angola in 1959 as a doctor. In 1960 he was arrested in the presence of his patients by colonial authorities, who opened fire when the patients protested. He was imprisoned in Portugal for two years before escaping to join the Marxist Movimento Popular de Liber- ta^ao de Angola (MPLA), whose president he became in 1962. When Angola became independent in 1975, he was proclaimed president, though he never controlled all the country’s territory (see Jonas M. Savimbi). His poems were widely recognized in the Portuguese-speaking world.

nettle family Family Urticaceae, composed of about 45 genera of her¬ baceous plants, shrubs, small trees, and a few vines, found mostly in tropical regions. Many species, especially the nettles ( Urtica ) and Aus¬ tralian nettle trees ( Laportea ), have on their stems and leaves stinging hairs that break the skin and release a fluid that irritates it for hours. Orna¬ mental species include artillery plant ( Pilea microphylla) and baby tears (Helxine soleiroli), both creeping plants. The trumpet tree ( Cecropia peltata ), a species of the New World tropics, has hollow stems that are inhabited by biting ants. Ramie, or China grass ( Boehmeria nivea), pro¬ duces a valuable fibre. Some nettles can be cooked and eaten.

network In broadcasting, a radio or television company that produces programs for broadcast to member stations. See ABC, CBS, CNN, NBC, PBS.

network, computer Two or more computers and peripheral equip¬ ment (e.g., printers) that are connected with one another for the purpose of exchanging data electronically. Two basic network types are local area networks (LANs) and wide-area networks. Wide-area networks connect computers and smaller networks to larger networks over greater geo¬ graphical areas, including different continents. Communications may occur over cables, fibre optics, or satellites, but most computer users access the network with a modem, using telephone lines. The largest wide- area network is the Internet. In the 1990s the World Wide Web was intro¬ duced and became the most popular way to access other Internet sites.

network, neural See neural network

Netzahualcoyotl \na- l tsa-wal- , ko-,yo-t 3 l\ City (pop., 2000: 1,225,083), central Mexico. It is a suburb of Mexico City and is one of Mexico’s largest municipalities. Settlement began just after 1900, when Lake Texcoco was reduced in size and large areas of land were uncovered along the southern shore. To the north is Xochiaca Dam (built 1946), which protects the city from floods.

Neubrandenburg Vnoi-.bran-dsn-.burkN City (pop., 2002 est.: 71,723), northeastern Germany, near the northern end of Tollense Lake.

It was founded in 1248 as a fortified outpost, became part of Mecklen¬ burg in about 1300, and prospered from its weaving industry and as a market centre. In the 17th—19th centuries it was plundered during the Thirty Years' War, devastated by fire, and battered by the Napoleonic Wars. Its medieval fortifications are well preserved, but most of its buildings were destroyed by bombing in World War II. Much rebuilt after 1952, it has engineering, food-processing, and chemical industries.

Neuchatel, Lake \,nce-sha-'tel\ Lake, western Switzerland. With an area of 84 sq mi (218 sq km), it is the largest lake entirely within Swit¬ zerland. It is a survivor of a former glacial lake in the lower Aare valley, at the base of the Jura Mountains. On the northern shore is La Tene, a pre¬ historic site, which dates to the late Iron Age culture.

Neue Sachlichkeit \ 1 noi-3-'zak-lik- 1 kIt\ German "New Objectiv¬ ity" Movement in German painting of the 1920s and early 1930s reflect¬ ing the cynicism and resignation of the post-World War I period. The term was coined in 1925 by Gustav Hartlaub, director of the Mannheim Kunst- halle, for an exhibition including works by George Grosz, Otto Dix, and Max Beckmann, the movement’s leading exponents. They worked in a realistic style, as opposed to the prevailing styles of abstraction and Expres¬ sionism, using meticulous detail to portray evil in smooth, cold, and static images derived from Italian Metaphysical painting for the purpose of vio¬ lent social satire. The movement ended in the 1930s with the rise of Nazism.

Neue Ziircher Zeitung Vnoi-o-'tsIBr-kor-'tsI-tuqN German "New Zurich Newspaper" Daily newspaper published in Zurich, Switz., generally considered one of the world’s great newspapers. Founded as the weekly Ziircher Zeitung in 1780, it took its present name in 1821. In 1868 it became a joint-stock company, with shares held by Zurich citizens. Two daily editions were published by 1869, and three by 1894. From its found¬ ing it has appealed to readers interested in deep coverage of international news. Austere in demeanour, it is characterized by careful, nonsensational reporting, highly informed and extremely thorough analysis, and back¬ ground information supplied as context for every major story.

Neuilly \nce-'ye\, Treaty of (November 27, 1919) Peace treaty between Bulgaria and the Allied Powers after World War I, signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. Bulgaria was forced to reduce its army to 20,000 men, cede lands to Yugoslavia and Greece that involved the trans¬ fer of 300,000 people, and pay reparations to the Allies.

Neumann Vnoi-.manV, (Johann) Balthasar (b. 1687, Eger, Bohe¬ mia, Austrian Habsburg domain—d. Aug. 19, 1753, Wurzburg) German architect. Bom in Bohemia, Neumann moved to Wurzburg in 1711. In 1719 he began work on a new palace for the prince-bishop, Johann Phil¬ ipp Franz von Schonbom, that was especially noted for its grand stair¬ case. Friedrich Karl von Schonborn, who was elected prince-bishop of Wurzburg in 1729, went on to became Neumann’s greatest patron, put¬ ting Neumann in charge of all major building projects in Wurzburg and Bamberg, including palaces, public buildings, bridges, a water system, and many churches. One of Neumann’s best works was the pilgrimage church at Vierzehnheiligen (1743-53). A master of the late Baroque style, he made ingenious use of domes and barrel vaults to create sequences of round and oval spaces possessing an airy elegance lit by huge windows; the lively interplay of these elements was accented by lavish use of deco¬ rative plasterwork, gilding, statuary, and murals.

Neumann, John von See John von Neumann

neural network Type of parallel computation in which computing elements are modeled on the network of neurons that constitute animal nervous systems. This model, intended to simulate the way the brain pro¬ cesses information, enables the computer to “learn” to a certain degree. A neural network typically consists of a number of interconnected pro¬ cessors, or nodes. Each handles a designated sphere of knowledge, and has several inputs and one output to the network. Based on the inputs it gets, a node can “learn” about the relationships between sets of data, sometimes using the principles of fuzzy logic. For example, a backgam¬ mon program can store and grade results from moves in a game; in the next game, it can play a move based on its stored result and can regrade the stored result if the move is unsuccessful. Neural networks have been used in pattern recognition, speech analysis, oil exploration, weather pre¬ diction, and the modeling of thinking and consciousness.

neural tube defect Congenital defect of the brain or spinal cord from abnormal growth of their precursor, the neural tube (see embryology), usu-

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1348 I neuralgia ► Neuschwanstein Castle

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ally with spine or skull defects. The tube may fail to close properly, have parts missing, or have a blockage (see hydrocephalus). In spina bifida, ver¬ tebrae are open over the back of the spinal cord, usually at the base. This may not affect function if no further defects (local absence of skin or meninges, protrusion of tissue, defect opening into the spinal cord) exist. The more serious forms can cause paralysis and impair bladder and bowel function. In encephalocele, a meningeal sac containing brain tissue pro¬ trudes from the skull. The effects depend on the amount of tissue involved. Adequate folic-acid intake by women of childbearing age reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Early surgery can prevent or minimize disability.

neuralgia \nyu-'ral-jo\ Pain of unknown cause in the area covered by a peripheral sensory nerve. In trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux), brief attacks of severe shooting pain along a branch of the trigeminal nerve (in front of the ear) usually begin after middle age, more often in women. Initially weeks or months apart, they become more frequent and easily triggered by touching the affected area, talking, eating, or cold. Analge¬ sics help, but permanent cure requires surgery. Glossopharyngeal neural¬ gia causes recurring severe pain, most often in men over 40. Excruciating pains begin in the throat and radiate to the ears or down the neck, with or without a trigger (e.g., sneezing, yawning, chewing). Usually separated by long intervals, attacks subside before analgesics take effect. Surgery may help in extreme cases. See also neuritis.

Neurath Vnoi-ratA, Konstantin, baron von (b. Feb. 2, 1873, Klein-Glattbach, Ger.—d. Aug. 14, 1956, Enzweihingen, W.Ger.) German diplomat. He entered the diplomatic service in 1903 and served as min¬ ister to Denmark (1919-22), ambassador to Italy (1922-30), and ambas¬ sador to Britain (1930-32). As Germany’s foreign minister (1932-38), he lent respectability to Adolf Hitler’s expansionist foreign policy. As “pro¬ tector” of Bohemia and Moravia (1939—41), he was accused of being too lenient and was replaced by Reinhard Heydrich. After World War II, he was tried and imprisoned for war crimes (1946-54).

neuritis \nyu-'ri-tos\ Inflammation of one or several nerves. The cause may be mechanical, vascular, allergic, toxic, metabolic, or viral. Symptoms—tingling, burning, or stabbing pains with sensory nerves and anything from muscle weakness to paralysis with motor nerves—are usu¬ ally confined to the part of the body served by the inflamed nerve. In Bell palsy, facial nerve inflammation causes a characteristic facial muscle dis¬ tortion. Analgesics can relieve the pain. Once the underlying cause is treated, recovery is usually rapid but may be incomplete in severe cases, with residual motor and sensory disturbances. See also neuralgia.

neurology Medical specialty concerned with nervous system function and disorders. Clinical neurology began in the mid-19th century, when mapping of the functional areas of the brain first began and understand¬ ing of the causes of conditions such as epilepsy improved. The develop¬ ment of electroencephalography in the 1920s aided in the diagnosis of neurological disease, as did the development of computed axial tomogra¬ phy in the 1970s and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging in the 1980s. In addition to dealing with physical disorders (e.g., tumours, trauma), neu¬ rology is unique among medical specialties in its intersection with psy¬ chiatry. Greater understanding of the brain chemistry of disorders such as schizophrenia and depression has led to a wide array of effective drugs that nevertheless work best in conjunction with psychotherapy. Side effects of drug or surgical therapy can be serious, and many nervous system disor¬ ders have no effective treatment.

neuron or nerve cell Any of the cells of the nervous system. Sensory neurons relay information from sense organs, motor neurons carry impulses to muscles and glands, and intemeurons transmit impulses between sensory and motor neurons. A typical neuron consists of den¬ drites (fibres that receive stimuli and conduct them inward), a cell body (a nucleated body that receives input from dendrites), and an axon (a fibre that conducts the nerve impulse from the cell body outward to the axon terminals). Both axons and dendrites may be referred to as nerve fibres. Impulses are relayed by neurotransmitter chemicals released by the axon terminals across the synapses (junctions between neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell, such as a muscle cell) or, in some cases, pass directly from one neuron to the next. Large axons are insulated by a mye¬ lin sheath formed by fatty cells called Schwann cells. Bundles of fibres from neurons held together by connective tissue form nerves. See illustra¬ tion opposite.

neuropathy \nu-'ra-po-the\ Disorder of the peripheral nervous system. It may be genetic or acquired, progress quickly or slowly, involve motor,

sensory, and/or autonomic (see autonomic nervous system) nerves, and affect only certain nerves or all of them. It can cause pain or loss of sen¬ sation, weakness, paralysis, loss of REFLEXes, muscle atrophy, or, in auto¬ nomic neuropathies, disturbances of blood pressure, heart rate, or bladder and bowel control; impotence; and inability to focus the eyes. Some types damage the neuron itself, others the myelin sheath that insulates it. Examples include carpal tunnel syndrome, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, poliomyelitis, and shingles. Causes include diseases (e.g., diabetes melutus, leprosy, syphilis), injury, toxins, and vitamin deficiency (e.g., beriberi). See also neuralgia; neuritis.

neuropsychology Science concerned with the integration of psycho¬ logical observations on behaviour with neurological observations on the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain. The field emerged through the work of Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke (1848-1905), both of whom identified sites on the cerebral cortex involved in the production or comprehension of language. Great strides have since been made in describing neuroanatomical systems and their relation to higher mental processes. The related field of neuropsychiatry addresses itself to disor¬ ders such as aphasia, Korsakoff syndrome, Tourette syndrome, and other CNS abnormalities. See also laterality.

neurosis Mental and emotional disorder that affects only part of the per¬ sonality, is accompanied by a less distorted perception of reality than in a psychosis, and is characterized by various physiological and mental dis¬ turbances (such as visceral symptoms and impaired concentration). The neuroses include anxiety attacks, certain forms of depression, hypochondri¬ asis, hysterical reactions, obsessive-compulsive disorders, phobias, various sexual dysfunctions, and some tics. They have traditionally been thought to be based on emotional conflict in which a blocked impulse seeks expression in a disguised response or symptom. Behavioral psychologists regard them as learned, inappropriate responses to stress, which can be unlearned.

neurotransmitter Chemical released by neurons to stimulate neigh¬ bouring neurons, allowing impulses to be passed from one cell to the next throughout the nervous system. A nerve impulse arriving at the axon ter¬ minal of one neuron stimulates release of a neurotransmitter, which crosses the microscopic gap (see synapse) in milliseconds to the adjoin¬ ing neuron’s dendrite. Many chemicals are believed to act as neurotrans¬ mitters. The few that have been identified include acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. Some neurotransmitters activate neurons; others inhibit them. Some mind-altering drugs act by changing synaptic activity.

Neuschwanstein Vnoi-'shvan-.shtlnV Castle Elaborate castle built on a rock ledge over the Pollat Gorge in the Bavarian Alps, near Fiissen, Ger. Begun in 1869 at the behest of Bavaria’s Louis II, this lavish stronghold is an eccentric romantic reconstruction of a medieval castle, complete with

Structure of a neuron. Dendrites, usually branching fibres, receive and conduct impulses to the cell body, where inputs arriving from various dendrites are inte¬ grated. Nerve impulses are conducted along the axon. When an impulse reaches the axon terminals, neurotransmitter chemicals are released into a gap (synapse) between the neuron and a neighbouring cell, and the impulse is transmitted to an adjacent neuron or effector cell (as of a muscle or gland). Schwann cells surround large axons, forming an insulating sheath. Spaces (nodes of Ranvier) between Schwann cells serve to conduct the nerve impulse quickly along the axon.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

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Neusiedler Lake ► Neville I 1349

a walled courtyard, indoor garden, towers, and an artificial cave. Its two- story throne room is modeled after a Byzantine basilica. Wall paintings depict scenes from Richard Wagner’s operas.

Neusiedler Vnoi-.zed-lorV Lake Hungarian Ferto-to Vfer-tce-'toX Lake, eastern Austria and northwestern Hungary. The shallow lake was formerly entirely within Hungary, but in 1922 the northern two-thirds were transferred to Austria. Formed during the Pleistocene Epoch, it is Austria’s lowest point, 377 ft (115 m) above sea level. Heavy reed growth along its shores supports many species of birds, which are protected by an international sanctuary and a biological station.

Neustria \'nu-stre-o\ During the Merovingian period, the western part of the kingdom of the Franks after the 6th-century conquest by Clovis. The eastern kingdom was Austrasia. Neustria corresponded roughly to the area of present-day France west of the Meuse River and north of the Loire River. The name later denoted a much smaller area; by the 11th—12th cen¬ turies it was sometimes used synonymously with Normandy.

neutering See castration

Neutra Vnoi-tra,\ English Vnii-troX, Richard (Joseph) (b. April 8, 1892, Vienna, Austria—d. April 16, 1970, Wuppertal, W.Ger.) Austrian- born U.S. architect. Educated in Vienna and Zurich, Neutra moved to the U.S. in 1923. His most important early work was the Lovell House, Los Angeles (1927-29), which features glass expanses and cable-suspended balconies. Shortly after World War II, Neutra created his most memorable works: the Kaufmann Desert House, Palm Springs, Calif. (1946-47), and the Tremaine House, Santa Barbara, Calif. (1947—48). Elegant and pre¬ cise, these houses are considered exceptionally fine examples of the Inter¬ national Style, which Neutra helped introduce into the U.S. Carefully placed in the landscape, Neutra’s houses often have patios or porches that make the outdoors seem part of the house. He believed that architecture should be a means of bringing man back into harmony with nature and with himself and was particularly concerned that his houses reflect the way of life of the owner. His later works included office buildings, churches, housing projects, and cultural centres. His many writings include Survival Through Design (1954).

neutralism See nonaligned movement

neutrality Legal status of a country arising from its abstention from all participation in a war between other countries, the maintenance of an atti¬ tude of impartiality toward the belligerents, and the recognition by the belligerents of this abstention and impartiality. Historically, the rights of neutral countries typically included freedom from use or occupation of their territory by any warring party, maintenance of diplomatic relations with other neutrals and belligerents, freedom of their citizens to go about their business, and respect for their intent to be neutral. In both World War I and World War II, many of the basic concepts of neutrality ceased to be respected, and by the late 20th century the freedom of the neutral had been sharply reduced.

neutrino \nii-'tre-no\ Fundamental particle with no electric charge, little mass, and a spin value of Vi. Neutrinos belong to the lepton family of sub¬ atomic particles. There are three types of neutrino, each associated with a charged lepton: the electron, the muon, and the tau. Neutrinos are the most penetrating of subatomic particles because they react with matter only by the weak force. They do not cause ionization, because they are not elec¬ trically charged. All types of neutrino have masses much smaller than their charged partners.

neutrino \nu-'tre-no\ problem, solar Shortfall in the expected num¬ ber of neutrinos produced by the Sun that are detected on Earth. Long- running experiments begun in the 1960s found only one-third to two- thirds the number of neutrinos predicted by theory to arrive from the Sun, where they are emitted as a result of nuclear fusion in the solar core. The discrepancy implied either that the theory of solar energy production was wrong or that neutrinos transformed en route to Earth in a way that made some of them seem to vanish. By the early 2000s strong evidence had been gathered in support of the latter explanation—that neutrinos “oscil¬ late” in flight among their different types, not all of which could be detected in the experiments. For this to occur, neutrinos must have at least a tiny mass, though the specific values remained to be determined.

neutron One of the constituent particles of every atomic nucleus except ordinary hydrogen. Discovered in 1932 by James Chadwick (1891-1974), it has no electric charge and has nearly 1,840 times the mass of the elec¬

tron. Free neutrons undergo beta decay with a half-life of about 10 min¬ utes. Thus, they are not readily found in nature, except in cosmic rays. They are a penetrating form of radiation. When bombarded with neutrons, various elements undergo nuclear fission and release more free neutrons. If enough free neutrons are produced, a chain reaction can be sustained. This process led to the development of nuclear power as well as the atomic bomb. Neutron beams produced in cyclotrons and nuclear reactors are important probes of matter, revealing details of structure in both organic and inorganic susbtances.

neutron bomb or enhanced radiation warhead Small ther¬ monuclear weapon that produces minimal blast and heat but releases large amounts of lethal radiation. The blast and heat are confined to a radius of only a few hundred yards; within a somewhat larger area, the bomb throws off a massive wave of neutron and gamma radiation, which is extremely destructive to living tissue. Such a bomb could be used with deadly effi¬ ciency against tank and infantry formations on the battlefield without endangering towns or cities only a few miles away. It can be carried in a missile or delivered by a howitzer or even an attack aircraft.

neutron star Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be composed mainly of neutrons with a thin outer atmosphere of pri¬ marily iron atoms and electrons and protons. Though typically about 12 mi (20 km) in diameter, they have a mass roughly twice the Sun’s and thus extremely high densities (about 100 trillion times that of water). Neutron stars have very strong magnetic fields. A solid surface differenti¬ ates them from black holes. Below the surface, the pressure is much too high for individual atoms to exist; protons and electrons are compacted together into neutrons. The discovery of pulsars in 1967 provided the first evidence of the existence of neutron stars, predicted in the early 1930s and believed by most investigators to be formed in supernova explosions. See also white dwarf star.

Neva \nye-'va\ River River, northwestern Russia. It flows 46 mi (74 km) from Lake Ladoga west to the Gulf of Finland in the Baltic Sea. It is navigable by large ships but is usually frozen from November to April. The city of St. Petersburg is at its mouth. Its banks were the scene of a battle in 1240 in which Alexander Nevsky, prince of Novgorod, defeated the Swedes.

Nevada State (pop., 2000: 1,998,257), western U.S. Bordered by Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and California, it covers 110,567 sq mi (286,368 sq km); its capital is Carson City. The Black Rock Desert is in the northwest; the Colorado River forms its extreme southeastern bound¬ ary. Human settlement in the area has spanned more than 20,000 years, and evidence of prehistoric inhabitants include dwelling remains and rock art. Early inhabitants included the Shoshone and Paiute Indians. Spanish missionaries in the 18th century and fur traders in the 1820s arrived before major exploration and mapping were done by John C. Fremont and Kit Carson (1843—45). Nevada was part of the land ceded to the U.S. by Mexico in 1848 and was included in the Utah Territory (1850-61). Settle¬ ments increased after the discovery of the Comstock Lode, a rich silver deposit, at Virginia City in 1859. It became the Territory of Nevada in 1861 and the 36th U.S. state in 1864. It began its transition to a modern economy during the Great Depression when gambling was legalized. Con¬ struction of the Hoover Dam aided the economy of southern Nevada. In the 1950s the state became the main testing site for atomic-energy experi¬ ments. The traditional bases of its economy, mining and agriculture, are overshadowed by government activity and tourism, the latter centred on Us Vegas, Reno, and Lake Tahoe.

Nevelson, Louise orig. Leah Berliavsky (b. Sept. 23?, 1899/1900, Kiev, Russia—d. April 17, 1988, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Ukrainian-bom U.S. sculptor. Bom in Kiev, she moved with her family to Maine in 1905. She studied at New York’s Art Students League and with Hans Hofmann in Munich (1931). Her early figurative sculptures feature blockish, inter¬ locking masses and found objects that anticipate her mature style. By the 1950s she was working almost exclusively in abstract forms. She is best known for the large, monochromatic abstract sculptures of this period, consisting of open-faced wooden boxes stacked to make freestanding walls. Within the boxes are highly suggestive collections of abstract¬ shaped objects mingled with pieces of architectural debris and other found objects skillfully arranged to produce a sense of mystery and then painted a single colour, usually black. She is recognized as one of the foremost sculptors of the 20th century.

Neville, Richard See Earl of Warwick

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Nevins, Allan (b. May 20, 1890, Camp Point, Ill., U.S.—d. March 5, 1971, Menlo Park, Calif.) U.S. historian. He worked nearly 20 years as a journalist before joining the faculty at Columbia University (1928-58). His best-known works include biographies of U.S. political and industrial figures, including Grover Cleveland (1932, Pulitzer Prize) and Hamilton Fish (1936, Pulitzer Prize), and his eight-volume history of the American Civil War, comprising Ordeal of the Union (1947), The Emergence of Lincoln (1950), and The War for Union (1959—71). In 1948 he inaugu¬ rated at Columbia the first oral history program in the U.S.

Nevsky, Alexander See Saint Alexander Nevsky

New Age movement Movement that spread through occult commu¬ nities in the 1970s and ’80s. It looked forward to a “New Age” of love and peace and offered a foretaste of the coming era through personal transformation and healing. The movement’s strongest supporters were followers of esotericism, a religious perspective based on the acquisition of mystical knowledge. At its height, the movement attracted millions of Americans, who practiced astrology, yoga, and channeling and used crys¬ tals as healing tools. Adherents sought to bring about global transforma¬ tion, and in 1987 many participated in the Harmonic Convergence, an attempt to accomplish that goal.

New Britai t\ formerly Neu-Pommern \n6i-'p6-m3rn\ Largest island (population 1999 est.: 435,000) in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. It was visited and named by English explorer William Dampier in 1700. After periods under German, Australian, and Japanese rule, it became part of Papua New Guinea in 1975 when that nation attained inde¬ pendence. It is crescent-shaped and heavily forested, and it has several vol¬ canoes. Its highest peak, Mount Sinewit, at 7,999 ft (2,438 m), erupted violently in 1937. Commercial products include coconuts, cocoa, and palm oil. Its harbours include Blanche Bay, Talasea, and Jacquinot Bay.

New Brunswick Province (pop., 2001: 729,498), one of the three Maritime Provinces, eastern Canada. Bordered by the U.S. and the Cana¬ dian province of Quebec, it lies on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Northumberland Strait (east) and the Bay of Fundy (south); it is connected with Nova Scotia by the Isthmus of Chignecto. Its capital, Fredericton, is home to the University of New Brunswick (founded 1785; Canada’s old¬ est university). New Brunswick was part of the original Acadia; it was colonized by the French in the 18th century, then captured by the British, who expelled the French-speaking Acadians in 1755 and incorporated the area into Nova Scotia. After the American Revolution, some 14,000 loy¬ alists from the U.S. settled there. As a result of this large influx, it was separated from Nova Scotia, and the province of New Brunswick was established in 1784. In 1867 it became an original member of the Domin¬ ion of Canada. Forests cover 90% of the province, whose major cities include Saint John and Moncton. Forestry and lumbering are the largest industries, followed by commercial fishing.

New Brunswick, University of Canadian public university in Fre¬ dericton, founded in 1785. It has faculties of administration, arts, com¬ puter science, education, engineering, forestry, graduate studies, law, nursing, physical education, science, and business and additional pro¬ grams in business, languages, and social sciences. A branch campus is located in Saint John.

New Caledonia French overseas territory (pop., 2005 est.: 237,000), southwestern South Pacific Ocean. It consists of the islands of New Cale¬ donia and Walpole, the Isle of Pines, and several other island groups. Its capital is Noumea. The main island, New Caledonia, has rich deposits of nickel that are among the largest in the world. Archaeological excava¬ tions indicate an Austronesian presence in the area c. 2000-1000 bc. The islands were visited by Capt. James Cook in 1774 and by various naviga¬ tors and traders in the 18th—19th century. They were occupied by France in 1853 and were a penal colony from 1864 to 1897. New Caledonians joined the Free French cause of Charles de Gaulle in 1940; the islands were the site of Allied bases during the Pacific war. They became a French overseas territory in 1946. In 1987 residents voted by referendum to remain part of France.

New Church or Swedenborgians Church whose members follow the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg. Swedenborg did not himself found a church, but he believed that his writings would be the basis of a “new church,” which he associated with the “new Jerusalem” mentioned in the Book of Revelation. In 1788, soon after his death, a group of his follow¬ ers established a church in London. The first Swedenborgian society in

the U.S. was organized in Baltimore in 1792. Baptism and the Lord’s Supper are the two sacraments of the church, and New Church Day (June 19) is added to the established Christian festivals. There are three New Church groups: the General Conference of the New Church, the General Convention of the New Jerusalem in the U.S.A., and the General Church of the New Jerusalem.

New Comedy Greek drama from c. 320 bc to the mid-3rd century bc that offers a mildly satiric view of contemporary Athenian society. Unlike Old Comedy, which parodies public figures and events (see Aristophanes), New Comedy features fictional average citizens in domestic life. The chorus, the representative of forces larger than life, is reduced to a small band of musicians and dancers. Plays usually involve the conventional¬ ized situation of thwarted lovers and contain stock characters. Menander introduced the New Comedy and became its most famous exponent; Plau¬ tus and Terence translated its plays for the Roman stage. Elements of New Comedy influenced European drama down to the 18th century.

New Criticism or formalism Post-World War I school of Anglo- American literary theory that insisted on the intrinsic value of a work of art and focused attention on the individual work alone as an independent unit of meaning. New Critics were opposed to the practice of bringing historical or biographical data to bear on the interpretation of a work. The primary critical technique was analytic (or “close”) reading of the text, concentrating on its language, imagery, and emotional or intellectual ten¬ sions. Critics associated with the movement include I. A. Richards, Wil¬ liam Empson, John Crowe Ransom, and R. P. Blackmur (1904-1965).

New Deal U.S. domestic program of Pres. Franklin Roosevelt to bring economic relief (1933-39). The term was taken from Roosevelt’s speech accepting the 1932 presidential nomination, in which he promised “a new deal for the American people.” New Deal legislation was enacted mainly in the first three months of 1933 (Roosevelt’s “hundred days”) and estab¬ lished such agencies as the Civil Works Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps to alleviate unemployment, the National Recovery Administration to revive industrial production, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. and the Securities and Exchange Commission to regulate financial institutions, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to support farm production, and the Tennessee Valley Authority to provide public power and flood control. A second period of legislation (1935—36), often called the second New Deal, established the National Labor Relations Board, the Works Progress Administration, and the social security system. Some leg¬ islation was declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court, and some programs did not accomplish their aims, but many reforms were continued by later administrations and permanently changed the role of government. See also Public Works Administration.

New Delhi \'de-le\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 294,783), capital of India, on the western bank of the Yamuna River, south of Old Delhi in Delhi capital territory. Built from 1912 to 1929, it was formally opened in 1931, when it became the capital. In contrast to the convoluted street plan of Old Delhi, New Delhi has an orderly, diagonal pattern and gives a feeling of openness and quiet. The main east-west axis is Central Vista Park, a thoroughfare lined with government buildings, museums, and research centres.

New Democratic Party Canadian democratic socialist political party. Formed in 1961 from the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, it favours a mixed public-private economy, broadened social benefits, and an inter¬ nationalist foreign policy. It formed governments in Saskatchewan, Man¬ itoba, and British Columbia intermittently from the 1940s to the 1990s, in the Yukon Territory from the 1980s, and in Ontario in the 1990s. At the national level, however, it has enjoyed only marginal success. The NDP draws much of its support from the farmers of Manitoba and Saskatchewan and the urban workers of British Columbia and Ontario.

New Economic Policy (NEP) Economic policy of the Soviet Union (1921-28). A temporary retreat from the failed War Communism policy of extreme centralization and doctrinaire socialism, the new measures included the return of most agriculture, retail trade, and light industry to private ownership (though the state retained control of heavy industry, banking, transport, and foreign trade) and the reintroduction of money into the economy. The policy allowed the economy to recover from years of war. In 1928 chronic grain shortages prompted Joseph Stalin to begin to eliminate private ownership of farmland and to collectivize agriculture under state control, effectively ending the NEP. By 1931 state control was reimposed over all industry and commerce.

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New England ► New Mexico I 1351

New England Region, northeastern U.S. It consists of the states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con¬ necticut and has an area of 66,667 sq mi (172,668 sq km). Named by John Smith, who explored its shores in 1614, it was later settled by English Puritans (see Puritanism). The New England colonies, fueled by self- sufficient farmers, evolved representative governments. The area’s numer¬ ous harbours soon promoted the growth of overseas commerce and a vigorous shipbuilding industry. In the 18th century it became a hotbed of agitation for independence from Britain, and its patriots played leading roles in the American Revolution.

New England Confederation or United Colonies of New England Organization of four American colonies. In 1643 delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Haven, and Plymouth met to solve trade, boundary, and religious disputes and to form a common defense against the French, Dutch, and Indians. They drew up articles of agree¬ ment and established a directorate of eight commissioners. The confed¬ eration was weakened by its advisory status and by the 1665 merger of Connecticut and New Haven. It was active in King Philip's War but dis¬ solved in 1684 when the Massachusetts charter was revoked.

New England Range Upland area, northeastern New South Wales, Australia. Part of the Great Dividing Range, it stretches about 200 mi (320 km) parallel to the eastern coast, constituting Australia’s largest plateau region. The highest point, Round Mountain, is 5,300 ft (1,615 m). New England National Park, on the eastern slope of the range, is one of sev¬ eral semitropical and temperate rainforest areas designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.

New England Renaissance See American Renaissance

New France Possessions of France in North America from 1534 to the Treaty of Paris in 1763. After the first land claim for France by Jacques Cartier (1534), the company of New France was established in 1627. With the explorations by Samuel de Champlain, Jacques Marquette, La Salle, Louis Jolliet, and others, the boundaries of New France expanded beyond the lower St. Lawrence River to include the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley. From 1689 rivalry between England and France affected their possessions in North America. The French and Indian War (1754-63) resulted in the cession of Canada and the territory east of the Mississippi River to England and the territory west of the Mississippi to Spain, with France keeping only the islands of St.-Pierre and Miquelon off the coast of Newfoundland.

New Goa See Panaji

New Granada, Viceroyalty of Spanish viceroyalty in northwest¬ ern South America during colonial times. The region was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century and was initially subject to the Viceroy¬ alty of Peru. It became a separate viceroyalty—first established tempo¬ rarily in 1717, and later permanently in 1739—that included the modem countries of Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Its capital was Santa Fe (modern Bogota). It was liberated from Spain in 1823.

New Guinea Indonesian Irian \,ir-e-'an\ Island, eastern Maay Archi- peago, western Pacific Ocean, north of Australia. Divided roughly in half between Indonesia (west) and Papua New Guinea (east), New Guinea is the second largest island in the world (after Greenand). It is about 1,500 mi (2,400 km) long and 400 mi (650 km) wide at its widest point, with an area of about 309,000 sq mi (800,000 sq km). The terrain ranges from lowland rainforest to fertile highlands and a rugged mountainous spine; its climate is tropical. Copper and gold are its chief mineral resources. The majority of the people of New Guinea are subsistence farmers.

New Hampshire State (pop., 2000: 1,235,786), northeastern U.S. One of the New Eng and states, it is bordered by Canada and the U.S. states of Maine, Massachusetts, and Vermont; the Atlantic Ocean lies to the southeast. New Hampshire covers 9,283 sq mi (24,043 sq km); its capi¬ tal is Concord. The Connecticut River forms its western boundary with Vermont. The White Mountains in its central part contain Mount Wash¬ ington. The region was inhabited by Algonquin Indians (see Algonquian anguages) when the first English people settled near Portsmouth in 1623. The area came under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 and became a separate crown colony in 1679. It was the first colony to declare its independence from Britain in 1776. Following the nation’s establish¬ ment, the state grew rapidly. Agriculture flourished and manufacturing developed along the rivers. Portsmouth became a major shipbuilding cen¬ tre. The economy is now based primarily on manufacturing and tourism,

although dairy farming and granite quarrying are also important. Because it holds the nation’s earliest presidential primary, it has furnished the first testing ground for many candidacies. Dartmouth and the University of New Hampshire are two of the state’s prominent educational institutions.

New Haven City (pop., 2000: 123,626), south-central Connecticut, U.S. A port of entry on Long Island Sound, it was originally settled in 1638 and became part of the colony of Connecticut in 1665. It was the co-capital with Hartford until 1875. New Haven was sacked by loyalist forces during the American Revolution (1779), and during the American Civil War it was a centre of abolitionist activity (see abolitionism). A number of famous inven¬ tors made the city a centre of industrial technology, including Charles Goodyear, Eu Whitney, and Samuel F.B. Morse. It is the home of Yale Uni¬ versity and several other educational and cultural institutions.

New Hebrides See Vanuatu

New Ireland formerly Neu-Mecklenburg \n6i- , me-kl3n-,berg\ Island and province (pop., 1999 est.: 111,906), Bismarck Archipeago, Papua New Guinea. The island has an area of 3,340 sq mi (8,651 sq km) and is about 200 mi (320 km) long. The terrain is largely mountainous. The province includes many nearby smaller islands. It was discovered by Dutch navigators in 1616 but was little known before 1884, when it became part of a German protectorate. After World War I it was mandated to Australia. The island was occupied by the Japanese in World War II. When Papua New Guinea gained independence in 1975, it became part of that country. Most of the inhabitants live in the north. Copra produc¬ tion dominates commercial development.

New Jersey State (pop., 2000: 8,414,350), eastern U.S. Lying on the Atlantic Ocean, it is bordered by New York, Delaware, and Pennsylva¬ nia. It covers 7,790 sq mi (20,176 sq km); its capital is Trenton. The Hud¬ son River forms its northeastern boundary; the De aware River, its western boundary. Before European colonization, the region was inhabited by Deaware Indian tribes. Although it was sighted by Giovanni Verrazzano and Henry Hudson, it was first settled by Dutch and Swedish traders. It was the site of numerous battles during the American Revolution, includ¬ ing one led by Gen. George Washington in 1776, after crossing the Dela¬ ware (see Battles of Trenton and Princeton). It was the third state to ratify the U.S. Constitution in 1787. Between the Revolutionary and Civil wars, it underwent tremendous industrialization, abetted by the construction of canals and, later, railways. Although known as the “Garden State,” a name influenced by its 18th-century agricultural fertility, its economy is based primarily on manufacturing, and it has many research facilities and labo¬ ratories. Tourism, led by Atantic City, is also important. Chief cities include Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, and Elizabeth.

New Mexico State (pop., 2000: 1,819,046), southwestern U.S. Bor¬ dered by Mexico and the U.S. states of Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and Arizona, it covers 121,598 sq mi (314,939 sq km); its capital is Santa Fe. In the west, it is crossed north-south by the Continental Divide. The Rio

Soap-tree yucca (Yucca elata) growing in the gypsum sand of White Sands National Monument, New Mexico, U.S.

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1352 I New Model Army ► New Spain

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Grande bisects the state and for a short distance forms the boundary with Texas. Human settlement in the area has probably spanned 10,000 years. Before the Navajo and Apache arrived in the 15th century, an agricultural Indian civilization had developed irrigation systems, pueblos, and cuff dwellings, whose ruins still dot the state. Spaniards from Mexico claimed the area for Spain in the 16th century, and in 1540 Francisco Vazquez de Coronado explored it. The first settlement was at Santa Fe in 1610. Mis¬ sionaries were active in the 1600s. It became part of Mexico in 1821 and was ceded to the U.S. in 1848 at the end of the Mexican War. The Ter¬ ritory of New Mexico was established by Congress in 1850. It became the 47th U.S. state in 1912 and retained its frontier image. World War II spurred economic and social change, bringing research facilities, includ¬ ing that at Los Alamos. The economy today is largely dependent on the export of raw materials and on federal government expenditures; oil and natural gas are also important. The University of New Mexico and a fine arts community are in Albuquerque.

New Model Army (1645) Army that won the English Civil Wars for Parliament. It was formed to provide a well-trained force drawn from all parts of England instead of the limited local militias. The new army also replaced the private armies raised by individual generals that lacked a unified command. Under Baron Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, the New Model Army won the Battle of Naseby and effectively ended the first phase of the Civil Wars.

New Nationalism American political policy espoused by Theodore Roosevelt. Influenced by Herbert Croly’s The Promise of American Life (1910), Roosevelt used the phrase in a speech in which he tried to reconcile the liberal and conservative wings of the Republican Party. New Nation¬ alism called for federal intervention to promote social justice and the eco¬ nomic welfare of the underprivileged. In 1912, as the presidential candidate of the Progressive Party, Roosevelt ran unsuccessfully on a plat¬ form based on the precepts of New Nationalism. See also Robert La Follette.

New Orleans City (pop., 2000: 484,674), southeastern Louisiana, U.S. Situated between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, it is the state’s largest city and a major deepwater port. Founded in 1718 by French colonist Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, it was ceded to Spain in 1763. In 1800 it was ceded back to France and three years later sold to the U.S. by Napoleon. Incorporated in 1805, it was the state capital from 1812 to 1849. During the American Civil War the city was captured and occupied by Union forces (1862). A notable tourist centre, its attractions include Mardi Gras and the French Quarter, a popular tourist area noted for its nightclubs and Creole architecture and cuisine. It is also a medical, indus¬ trial, and educational centre. It was devastated by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, when the levees protecting the city were breached and nearly all the city was flooded.

New Orleans, Battle of (1815) Battle between the U.S. and Britain during the War of 1812. Late in 1814 a British fleet of more than 50 ships commanded by Gen. Edward Pakenham (1778-1815) sailed into the Gulf of Mexico and prepared to attack New Orleans. Gen. Andrew Jack- son, commander of the U.S. Army of the Southwest, which consisted chiefly of militiamen and volunteers, fought the British regulars who stormed their position on Jan. 8, 1815. His troops were so effectively entrenched behind earthworks and the British troops so exposed that the fighting was brief, ending in a decisive U.S. victory, a British withdrawal, and the death of Gen. Pakenham. The battle was without military value, since the Treaty of Ghent ending the war had been signed in December, but the news had been slow to arrive. The victory nevertheless raised national morale, enhancing Jackson’s reputation as a hero and preparing his way to the presidency.

New Orleans, Battle of (April 24-25, 1862) Naval action in the American Civil War. A Union squadron of 43 ships led by David Farragut entered the Mississippi River below New Orleans and breached the chain cables stretched across the river as a defense. The 3,000 Confederate troops under Mansfield Lovell withdrew northward and the city fell. The Union army under Benjamin Butler entered the city on May 1 and began an occupation that lasted until the end of the war. The loss of New Orleans was a major blow to the Confederacy.

New Orleans jazz See Dixieland

New Realism Early 20th-century movement in metaphysics and episte¬ mology that opposed the idealism dominant in British and U.S. universi¬ ties. Early leaders included William James, Bertrand Russell, and G. E.

Moore, who adopted the term realism to signal their opposition to ideal¬ ism. In 1910 William Pepperel Montague, Ralph Barton Perry, and oth¬ ers signed an article entitled “The Program and First Platform of Six Realists,” and followed it with a cooperative volume, The New Realism (1912). In defending the independence of known things. New Realism affirmed that in cognition “the content of knowledge, that which lies in or before the mind when knowledge takes place, is numerically identical with the thing known” (a form of direct realism). To some realists, this epistemological monism seemed unable to give a satisfactory explanation of the mind’s proneness to error.

new religious movement (NRM) Any religion originating in recent centuries having characteristic traits including eclecticism and syn¬ cretism, a leader who claims extraordinary powers, and a “countercul¬ tural” aspect. Regarded as outside the mainstream of society, NRMs in the West are extremely diverse but include millennialist movements (e.g., the Jehovah's Witnesses), Westernized Hindu or Buddhist movements (e.g., the Hare Krishna movement), so-called “scientific” groups (e.g., Scientol¬ ogy), and nature religions (see Neo-Paganism). In the East they include China’s 19th-century Taiping movement (see Taiping rebellion) and present- day Falun Gong movement, Japan’s Tenrikyo and PL Kyodan, and Korea’s Ch'ondogyo and Unification Church. Some NRMs fade away or meet tragic ends; others, such as the Mormon church, eventually become accepted as mainstream.

New Republic, The Weekly journal of opinion, founded in 1914 by Willard Straight, with Herbert Croly as editor. Long one of the most influential liberal magazines in the U.S., it early reflected the progressive movement and sought reforms in U.S. government and society. Its popu¬ larity declined in the 1920s when liberalism was out of favour but revived in the 1930s. After initially opposing Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s admin¬ istration, it supported Roosevelt’s New Deal. After becoming editor in 1946, former U.S. vice president Henry Wallace moved the magazine fur¬ ther left until he was forced to resign. In the early 1980s the magazine began to display an array of commentary reflecting the resurgence of con¬ servatism in U.S. politics.

New River River, southwestern Virginia and southern West Virginia, U.S. It is formed in North Carolina and flows north across Virginia into West Virginia, where it joins the Gauley River to form the Kanawha River. It is about 255 mi (410 km) long and is spanned by one of the longest steel-arch bridges in the world, the New River Gorge bridge near Fay¬ etteville, W.Va., whose main span is 1,700 ft (518 m).

New School University formerly New School for Social Research Private university in New York City. It was established in 1919 as an informal centre for adult education and soon became the first American university to specialize in continuing education. In 1934 it estab¬ lished a graduate faculty of political and social sciences, staffed mainly by refugee academics from Nazi Germany. It also includes a liberal arts college, a graduate school of management and urban policy, the Mannes College of Music, and the Parsons School of Design.

New Siberian Islands Island group, Arctic Ocean, northeastern Rus¬ sia, north of eastern Siberia. The islands divide the Laptev Sea from the East Siberian Sea. They are separated from the Siberian mainland by Dmitry Laptev Strait. With an area of about 14,500 sq mi (38,000 sq km), they are snow-covered for more than nine months of the year. Arctic fox, northern deer, lemming, and many species of birds inhabit the islands.

New South Wales State (pop., 2001: 6,609,304), southeastern Aus¬ tralia. Bounded by Queensland, the Pacific Ocean, Victoria, and South Aus¬ tralia, it has an area of 309,130 sq mi (800,640 sq km); the capital is Sydney. The dominant geographic feature is the Great Dividing Range. Inhabited from prehistoric times. New South Wales was claimed for Britain by Capt. James Cook in 1770. The colony included the entire continent except for Western Australia. The interior was explored throughout the 19th century and colonies were set up there, separate from New South Wales. In 1901 it became part of the Commonwealth of Australia. The state ceded the area of the Australian Capital Territory in 1911. New South Wales is the centre of commercial farming, industry, and culture in Australia.

New Spain, Viceroyalty of Former Spanish viceroyalty (1535— 1821), principally in North America. At various times it included what is now the southwestern U.S. (as well as Florida and parts of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico), Mexico, Central America north of Panama, much of the West Indies, and the Philippines. Mexico City was the seat of the gov-

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New Sweden ► New York City I 1353

ernment, which also had jurisdiction over Spain’s Caribbean possessions. The first viceroy sent Francisco Vazquez de Coronado on his northern expeditions. The viceroyalty succumbed to the coalition forged by Agustrn de Iturbide in 1821.

New Sweden Only Swedish colony in North America, on the Dela¬ ware River, extending from the site of present-day Trenton, N.J., U.S., to the mouth of the river. It was established by the New Sweden Co. led by Peter Minuit in 1638, when Fort Christina was built at what is now Wilm¬ ington, Del. It was captured by the Dutch in 1655 under Peter Stuyvesant. The Swedish colonists were allowed to keep their lands and continue their customs under Dutch rule.

New Testament Second of the two major divisions of the Christian Bible. Christians see the New Testament as the fulfillment of the promise of the Old Testament. It recounts the life and ministry of Jesus and inter¬ prets their meaning for the early church, focusing especially on the new covenant created between God and the followers of Jesus. There are 27 books in the New Testament: four Gospels, or stories of the life and teach¬ ings of Christ; the Acts of the Apostles, a historical narrative of the first years of the Christian church; 21 epistles, or letters of advice and instruc¬ tion to early Christians; and the Book of Revelation, a description of the coming apocalypse. Most were written in the later 1st century ad, though none can be dated precisely. Only two authors are known for certain: St. Paul, credited with 13 epistles; and St. Luke, writer of the third gospel and the Book of Acts. Attributions of other authors range from highly likely (for the other three gospels) to completely unknown (for the Epistle to the Hebrews). These documents circulated among the early churches and were used as preaching and teaching sources. The earliest known list of the current New Testament canon dates from ad 367 in a work by St. Athanasius. A church council of 382 gave final approval to the list.

New Thought Mind-healing movement that originated in the U.S. in the 19th century. Its earliest proponent, Phineas P. Quimby (1802-66), was a mesmerist who taught that illness is mental. New Thought was influenced by philosophers ranging from Plato to Emanuel Swedenborg, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Ralph Waldo Emerson and in turn influenced Mary Baker Eddy’s Christian Science. The International New Thought Alliance (formed 1914) asserts that sin and illness stem from incorrect thinking. New Thought groups emphasize Jesus as a teacher and healer and proclaim his kingdom as being within each person.