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Melaka* ™&‘ n Winggi HNDON.:

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(329,847 sq km). Population (2005 est.):

26,130,000. Capitals: Kuala Lumpur/

Putrajaya. Because of Malaysia’s location on the heavily traveled Strait of Malacca, the population is a highly diverse mix, in

which ethnic Malays and Chinese form the largest groups and smaller ethnic groups include Indians, Pakistanis, and Tamils. Languages: Malay (official), Chinese, Indo-European languages. Religions: Islam (official), Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism. Currency: ringgit. West Malaysia is largely mountainous; East Malaysia has coastal plains rising to hills and then to a mountainous core. Much of Malaysia is covered by rainforest. Tree crops, notably rubber and palm oil, are the most important cash crops; rice is the chief staple crop. Petroleum drilling and production and tin mining are important, as is the manufacture of electronic products, rubber goods, cement, and iron and steel products. Malaysia is a consti¬ tutional monarchy with two legislative houses; the chief of state is the paramount ruler, and the head of government is the prime minister. Malaya has been inhabited for 6,000-8,000 years. Small kingdoms existed in the 2nd-3rd century ad when adventurers from India first arrived. Sumatran exiles founded the city-state of Malacca c. 1400, and it flour¬ ished as a trading and Islamic religious centre until its capture by the Por¬ tuguese in 1511. Malacca passed to the Dutch in 1641. The British founded a settlement on Singapore Island in 1819, and by 1867 they had established the Straits Settlements, including Malacca, Singapore, and Pen¬ ang. During the late 19th century, Chinese began to migrate to Malaya. Japan invaded Malaya in 1941 and captured Singapore in 1942. After Japan’s defeat in 1945, opposition to British rule led to the creation of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) in 1946, and in 1948 the peninsula was federated with Penang. Malaya gained independence from Britain in 1957, and the Federation of Malaysia was established in 1963. Its economy expanded greatly from the late 1970s, though it experienced the regional economic slump of the mid- to late 1990s; the economy sub¬ sequently recovered.

Malcolm II (b. c. 954—d. Nov. 25, 1034) King of Scotland (1005-34). He acquired the throne after killing Kenneth III and defeating a Northum¬ brian army at Carham (c. 1016). He became the first king to reign over territory roughly equivalent to modem Scotland. He tried to eliminate rivals to his grandson Duncan I, but Macbeth survived to challenge the succession.

Malcolm III Canmore (b. c. 1031—d. Nov. 13, 1093, near Alnick, Northumberland, Eng.) King of Scotland (1058-93). The son of King Duncan I, he lived in exile in England after Macbeth murdered his father. He defeated and killed Macbeth in 1057 and was crowned king, found¬ ing a dynasty that consolidated royal power in Scotland. He gave refuge

to the Anglo-Saxon prince Edgar the Aetheling in 1066. Though he rec¬ ognized William I as overlord in 1072, Malcolm made five raids into England, during the last of which he was killed.

Malcolm X orig. Malcolm Little later El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (b. May 19, 1925,

Omaha, Neb., U.S.—d. Feb. 21,

1965, New York, N.Y.) U.S. black Muslim leader. He was raised in Michigan, where the family house was burned by the Ku Klux Klan; his father was later murdered and his mother was institutionalized. He moved to Boston, drifted into petty crime, and was sent to prison for bur¬ glary in 1946. He converted to the Black Muslim faith (Nation of Islam) the same year. On his release in 1952, he changed his last name to X to signify his rejection of his “slave name.” Soon after meeting the Nation of Islam’s leader, Elijah Muhammad, he became the sect’s most effective speaker and organizer.

He spoke with bitter eloquence against white exploitation of blacks and derided the civil rights move¬ ment and integration, calling instead for black separatism, black pride, and the use of violence for self-protection. Differences with Elijah Muhammad prompted Malcolm to leave the Nation of Islam in 1964. A pilgrimage to Mecca led him to acknowledge the possibility of world brotherhood and to convert to orthodox Islam. Rival Black Muslims made threats against his life, and he was shot to death at a rally in a Harlem ballroom. His celebrated autobiography (1965) was written by Alex Haley on the basis of numerous interviews conducted shortly before Malcolm’s death.

Maldives Vmol-.devzX officially Republic of Maldives Archipelago country, north-central Indian Ocean southwest of Sri Lanka. It is a chain of about 1,200 small coral islands and sandbanks (some 200 of which are

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3 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

inhabited), grouped in clusters, or atolls. Area (land): 115 sq mi (298 sq km). The islands extend more than 510 mi (820 km) north-south and 80 mi (130 km) east-west. Population (2005 est.): 294,000. Capital: Male. The population is ethni¬ cally mixed; ancestors include Dravidian and Sinhalese peoples as well as Arabs, Chinese, and others from surrounding Asian areas. Languages:

Maldon ► Mali I 1177

Divehi (official), Arabic. Religion: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni). Currency: rufiyaa. All the islands are low-lying, none rising more than 6 ft (1.8 m) above sea level. The atolls have sandy beaches, lagoons, and a luxuriant growth of coconut palms, together with breadfruit trees and tropical bushes. One of the world’s poorest countries, the Maldives has a developing economy based on fishing, tourism, boatbuilding, and boat repairing. It is a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. The archipelago was settled in the 5th cen¬ tury bc by Buddhists probably from Sri Lanka and southern India; accord¬ ing to tradition, Islam was adopted in 1153. The Portuguese held sway in Male in 1558-73. The islands were a sultanate under the Dutch rulers of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) during the 17th century. After the British gained con¬ trol of Ceylon in 1796, the area became a British protectorate, a status formalized in 1887. The islands won full independence from Britain in 1965, and in 1968 a republic was founded and the sultanate abolished. The Maldives joined the British Commonwealth in 1982. Its economy has gradually improved, aided by the growth of tourism. In 2004 the archi¬ pelago was damaged by a large tsunami.

Maldon Vmol-donV Battle of (991) Conflict fought between Saxons and victorious Viking raiders. The battle was commemorated in an Old English heroic poem, which described the war parties aligned on either side of a stream in Essex. It recorded the names of English deserters as well as those who stood fast against the Vikings.

Male \'ma-le\ Chief atoll (pop., 2000: 74,069) and capital of the Maldives. Located in the centre of the Maldives, it comprises two groups of islets: North Male, which is 32 mi (51 km) by 23 mi (37 km); and South Male, which is 20 mi (32 km) by 12 mi (19 km). It has central courts, a gov¬ ernment hospital, an international airport, and public and private schools. It is a trade and tourist centre.

Malebranche \mal-'bra n sh\, Nicolas de (b. Aug. 6, 1638, Paris, France—d. Oct. 13, 1715, Paris) French priest, theologian, and philoso¬ pher. His philosophy is an attempt to reconcile Cartesianism with the thought of St. Augustine and with Neoplatonism. Central to Malebranche’s metaphysics is his doctrine of occasionalism, according to which what are commonly called “causes” are merely “occasions” on which God acts to produce effects. His principal work is Search After Truth (3 vol., 1674-75).

Malenkov \m3- , len- I kof\, Georgy (Maksimilianovich) (b. Jan. 13, 1902, Orenburg, Russia—d. Jan. 14, 1988, near Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet politician and prime minister (1953-55). He joined the Communist Party in 1920 and rose swiftly through the ranks as a close associate of Joseph Stalin. In 1946 he became a full member of the Polit¬ buro and deputy prime minister. After Stalin’s death (1953), he was forced to yield his post as senior party secretary to Nikita Khrushchev, but as prime minister Malenkov worked to reduce arms appropriations, increase the production of consumer goods, and provide more incentives for collec¬ tive farm workers. His programs were opposed by other party leaders, and he was forced to resign as prime minister (1955). Involved in the unsuccessful effort to depose Khrushchev, he was expelled from his other posts (1957) and from the party (1961) and was exiled to central Asia to manage a hydroelectric plant.

Malesherbes \mal-'erb\, Chretien Guillaume de Lamoignon

de (b. Dec. 6, 1721, Paris, France—d. April 22, 1794, Paris) French royal administrator. A lawyer, he was made a counselor in the Parlement (high court) of Paris in 1744. As director of the press (1750-63), he allowed publication of many works by the philosophes, including Denis Diderot’s Encyclopedic. In 1775 he became secretary of state for the royal house¬ hold and instituted prison and legal reforms, including ending the misuse of lettres de cachet, and supported the economic reforms of the comptrol¬ ler general, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot. He failed to win the king’s sup¬ port for his projects and resigned in 1776. In the French Revolution, he helped conduct the defense of Louis XVI (1792). He was arrested in 1793, tried for treason, and guillotined.

Malevich \m9-'lya-vich\, Kazimir (Severinovich) (b. Feb. 23, 1878, near Kiev, Russia—d. May 15, 1935, Leningrad) Russian painter and designer. He discovered Cubism on a trip to Paris in 1912 and returned to lead the Russian Cubist movement. In 1915 he exhibited paintings more abstractly geometrical than any seen before, consisting of simple geo¬ metrical forms painted in a limited palette, a style he called Suprematism. In 1917-18 he created his well-known White on White series, austere images of a white square floating on a white background. In 1919 he joined Marc Chagall at his revolutionary art school in Vitebsk, where he

exerted a strong influence on El Lissitzky. In the 1920s he returned to rep¬ resentational painting but could not accede to the government’s demand for Socialist Realism. Though his career was doomed, he greatly influenced Western art and design.

Malherbe \mo-'ler-b3\, Francois de (b. 1555, in or near Caen, France—d. Oct. 16, 1628, Paris) French poet and theoretician. He con¬ verted to Roman Catholicism after receiving a Protestant education. In 1577 he became secretary to the governor of Provence, Henri d’Angouleme. His ode to the new queen, Marie de Medicis, made his name widely known, and he became court poet in 1605. His 200-odd surviving letters provide a picture of court life, and his commentary on the poetry of Philippe Desportes (1546-1606) reveal his principles of poetry: that it must demonstrate verbal harmony, propriety, and intelligibility.

Mali officially Republic of Mali Country, western Africa. Area: 482,077 sq mi (1,248,574 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 11,415,000. Capital: Bamako. The Bambara constitute about one-third of the total popu-

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lation. Other ethnic groups include the Fulani and the Berbers (Amazigh). Lan¬ guages: French (official), Dogon, Bam¬ bara, Songhai, Soninke, Senufo, Arabic.

Religions: Islam; also traditional beliefs,

Christianity. Currency: CFA franc. Mali’s terrain is largely flat, and in the north its plains stretch into the Sahara. The upper Niger River basin is in the south; nearly one-third of the total length of the Niger River flows through Mali. Only a tiny fraction of Mali’s total land area is considered arable. Mineral reserves, which are largely unexploited, include iron ore, bauxite, gold, and copper. Agriculture constitutes the major economic activity. Staple crops include millet, sorghum, com, and rice; cash crops include cotton and peanuts. Mali is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Inhabited since prehistoric times, the region was on a trans-Saharan cara¬ van route. The Malinke empire of Mali was founded in the 12th century on the upper and middle Niger. In the 15th century the Songhai empire in the Timbuktu-Gao region gained control. Morocco invaded the area in 1591, and Timbuktu gradually declined in importance. In the mid-19th century the French conquered the area, which became part of French West Africa. In 1946 the area, known as the French Sudan, became an overseas territory of the French Union. In 1958 it was proclaimed the Sudanese Republic, and it joined with Senegal (1959-60) to form the Mali Federation. Senegal seceded, and in 1960 the independent Republic of Mali was formed. The government was overthrown by military coups in 1968 and 1991. Elec¬ tions were held twice in the 1990s and again in 2002. The country has experienced continuing economic problems.

1178 I Mali empire ► malnutrition

Mali empire Trading empire that flourished in West Africa in the 13th— 16th centuries. It developed from the state of Kangaba on the upper Niger River and was probably founded before ad 1000. The Malinke inhabitants of Kangaba acted as middlemen in the gold trade in ancient Ghana. Grow¬ ing in the 13th century under the leadership of Sundiata, it continued to expand in the 14th century and absorbed Gao and Timbuktu. Its boundaries extended to the Hausa people in the east and to Fulani and Tukulor peoples in the west. It eventually outgrew its political and military strength, and many of its subject areas revolted. By c. 1550 it had ceased to be an important political entity.

Malinke \m3-'lii]-ke\ or Mandinka or Mandingo Cluster of peoples occupying parts of Mali, Guinea, Cote d’Ivoire, Senegal, Gam¬ bia, and Guinea-Bissau. They speak a Mande language of the Niger- Congo family. Numbering 4.7 million, they are divided into numerous independent groups dominated by a hereditary nobility. One group, the Kangaba, has one of the world’s most ancient dynasties; its rule has been virtually continuous since the 7th-century founding of the Mali empire. Most contemporary Malinke grow millet and sorghum and tend cattle. In religion they are divided among Islam and indigenous faiths.

Malinovsky, Rodion (Yakovlevich) (b. Nov. 23, 1898, Odessa, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. March 31, 1967, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet marshal prominent in World War II. A corps commander in 1941, he rose to army-group commands and played an important role in the Battle of Stalingrad, then commanded the Soviet drives into Romania (1944) and Austria (1945). After the war he held command positions in the Soviet Far East (1945-55). As minister of defense (1957-67), he oversaw a buildup of Soviet military power.

Malinowski \ I ma-b- , n6f-ske\, Bronislaw (Kasper) (b. April 7, 1884, Krakow, Pol., Austria- Hungary—d. May 16, 1942, New Haven, Conn., U.S.) Polish-British anthropologist. He is principally associated with studies of the peoples of Oceania and with the school of thought known as function¬ alism. After taking degrees in phi¬ losophy, physics, and mathematics in Poland, Malinowski happened upon James George Frazer’s The Golden Bough and went to study anthropol¬ ogy at the London School of Eco¬ nomics and Political Science (1910—

16). Doing research in the Trobriand Islands, he lived in a tent among the people (see Trobriander), spoke the vernacular fluently, recorded “texts” freely on the scene as well as in set interviews, and observed reactions with an acute clinical eye. He was thus able to present a dynamic pic¬ ture of social institutions that clearly separated ideal norms from actual behaviour and in doing so laid much of the basis for modem anthropo¬ logical field research. He taught at the London School of Economics (1922-38) and Yale University (1938-42). He wrote several works that are now considered classics of anthropology, including Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) and Magic, Science and Religion (1948).

Malla era Period of Nepal’s history when the Kathmandu Valley was ruled by the Malla dynasty (10th—18th century). The Malla ruler Jaya Sthiti (r. c. 1382-95) introduced a legal and social code strongly influ¬ enced by contemporary Hindu principles. In the early 18th century one of Nepal’s independent principalities, Gurkha, began to challenge the Mafias, who were at that time weakened by familial dissension and social and economic discontent. They were overthrown by the Gurkha ruler Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1769. See also Newar.

mallard \'mal-ord\ Abundant “wild duck” (Anas platyrhynchos, family Anatidae) of the Northern Hemisphere, ancestor of most domestic ducks. The mallard is a typical dabbling duck in its general habits and courtship display. The drake of the common mallard (subspecies A. p. platyrhyn¬ chos) has a metallic green or purplish head, reddish breast, and light-gray body; the hen is mottled yellowish brown. Both sexes have a yellow bill and a purplish blue, white-bordered wing mark. Males and females of the

Greenland mallard (A. p. conboschas ) also differ markedly in plumage. In the other subspecies, both sexes resemble the female common mallard. Mallards are found throughout most of Asia, Europe, and northern North America.

Mallarme Nma-lar-'maX, Stephane (b. March 18, 1842, Paris, France—d. Sept. 9, 1898, Valvins, near Fontainbleau) French poet.

With Paul Verlaine, he was a founder and leader of the Symbolist movement.

A schoolteacher throughout his life,

Mallarme made steady progress in his parallel career as a poet. Perhaps partly owing to tragedies in his life, most of his verse expresses an intel¬ lectual longing to transcend reality and find refuge in an ideal world, as in the dramatic poems Herodiade (1869) and LApres-midi d’unfaune (1876; “The Afternoon of a Faun”), which inspired Claude Debussy’s famous prelude, and the typographi¬ cally innovative Un Coup de des (1897). After 1868 he devoted him¬ self to writing complex, exquisitely wrought, and extraordinarily difficult poems about the nature of imagina¬ tion itself. The poems were intended for what he called his Grand oeuvre, which he never completed.

Malle \'mal\, Louis (b. Oct. 30, 1932, Thumeries, France—d. Nov. 23, 1995, Beverly Hills, Calif., U.S.) French film director. He made his first feature film, Frantic, in 1957. Malle gained commercial success with The Lovers (1958), starring Jeanne Moreau, and he became a leading figure in the French New Wave. In The Fire Within (1963), Thief of Paris (1967), Murmur of the Heart (1971), and Lacombe, Lucien (1973), he achieved emotional realism and stylistic simplicity. In 1975 he moved to the U.S., where he directed films such as Pretty Baby (1978), Atlantic City (1980), My Dinner with Andre (1981), Au revoir les enfants (1987), and Vanya on 42nd Street (1994).

Mallet, Robert (b. June 3, 1810, Dublin, Ire.—d. Nov. 5, 1881, Lon¬ don, Eng.) Irish civil engineer and scientific investigator. He studied at Trinity College and in 1831 took charge of his father’s Victoria foundry, which he expanded into the dominant foundry in Ireland. His commis¬ sions included the construction of railroad terminals, the Nore viaduct, the Fastnet Rock lighthouse, and several swivel bridges over the Shan¬ non. His major innovation in bridge technology was buckled-plate floor¬ ing. He built an early form of seismograph and advanced the technique of making large castings of iron, such as heavy cannon.

Mallorca See Majorca

mallow family Family Malvaceae (order Malvales), which contains about 95 genera of herbs, shrubs, and small trees. Mallow species occur in all but the coldest parts of the world, but they are most numerous in the tropics. Hairs that branch into starlike patterns commonly cover some or most vegetative (nonflower) parts of these plants. The flowers are regular and often showy. Cotton is the most important member of the family economically. The green fruits of okra are edible. Many species are valued as ornamentals, including hollyhock and rose of Sharon.

Malmo \'mal-,moe\ Port city (pop., 2000 est.: city, 259,579; metro, area, 522,857), southern Sweden, located across the Sound from Copenhagen. Originally known as Malmhaug, it was chartered in the late 13th century. Following its union with Sweden in 1658, it suffered an economic decline, partly because of the loss of trade. The building of the harbour in 1775 and the arrival of the railroad after 1800 stimulated economic develop¬ ment. Sweden’s third largest city, it is an important commercial centre. Its economy is based on export products, shipbuilding, and textile manu¬ factures. Its historic buildings include a 16th-century fortress, the town hall, and the 14th-century St. Peter’s Church.

malnutrition Condition resulting from inadequate diet or from inabil¬ ity to absorb or metabolize nutrients. Food intake may be insufficient to supply calories or protein (see kwashiorkor) or deficient in one or more

Malinowski

COURTESY OF THE POLISH LIBRARY, LONDON

Malory ► mamba I 1179

essential vitamins or minerals. The latter case can lead to specific nutri¬ tional deficiency diseases (including beriberi, pellagra, rickets, and scurvy). Metabolic defects, especially of the digestive system, liver, kidneys, or red blood cells, prevent proper digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutri¬ ents. See also nutrition.

Malory, Sir Thomas (fl. c. 1470) English author of Le Morte Dart- hur (“The Death of Arthur”). Even in the 16th century Malory’s identity was unknown, but he is tentatively identified as a Welshman and knight who was imprisoned at various times. Le Morte Darthur (completed c. 1470) was the first account of Arthurian legend in English prose. Though based on French romances, it differs from its models in its emphasis on the brotherhood of the knights rather than on courtly love and on the con¬ flicts of loyalty that destroy the fellowship. Only one extant manuscript predates its printing by William Caxton in 1485.

Malpighi \mal-'pe-ge\, Marcello (b. March 10, 1628, Crevalcore, near Bologna, Papal States—d. Nov. 30, 1694, Rome) Italian physician and biologist. In 1661 he identified the pulmonary capillary network, proving William Harvey’s theory on blood circulation. He discovered the taste buds and was the first to see red blood cells and realize that they gave blood its colour. He studied subdivisions of the liver, brain, spleen, kidneys, bone, and deeper skin layers (Malpighian layers), concluding that even the largest organs are composed of minute glands. Malpighi also studied insect larvae (especially the silkworm), chick embryology, and plant anatomy, seeing an analogy between plant and animal organization. He is regarded as the founder of microscopic anatomy and may be regarded as the first histologist.

malpractice Negligence, misconduct, lack of ordinary skill, or breach of duty in the performance of a professional service (e.g., in medicine) that results in injury or loss. The plaintiff must usually demonstrate a fail¬ ure by the professional to perform according to the field’s accepted stan¬ dards. Physicians, lawyers, accountants, and other professionals have increasingly been subject to malpractice suits in the U.S., causing a dra¬ matic increase in malpractice insurance rates.

Malraux \mal-'ro\, Andre (-Georges) (b. Nov. 3, 1901, Paris, France—d. Nov. 23, 1976, Paris) French novelist, art historian, and states¬ man. Imprisoned at age 21 by French colonial authorities while on an archaeological expedition in Cambodia, Malraux grew to be a fervent anticolonialist and advocate for social change. He became involved with revolutionary movements in Indochina and later fought in the Spanish Civil War and with the French Resistance during World War II. He was Charles de Gaulle’s minister of cultural affairs (1958-68). His novels, which often draw on his experiences, include The Conquerors (1928); Man’s Fate (1933, Prix Goncourt), his masterpiece; and Man’s Hope (1937). After 1945 he abandoned fiction for art history and criticism; The Voices of Silence (1951) is his major work of the period.

malt Grain product used in beverages and foods. Malt provides a basis for fermentation and adds flavour and nutrients. It is made by steeping grain, usually barley, in water and allowing partial germination to occur. The flavour of beer primarily results from the malt from which it is made. The enzymes produced within the bailey seed during germination break down starch into malt sugar, or maltose, which is then fermented by yeast to yield alcohol and carbon dioxide. Whiskey likewise is made with malt.

Malta Island country, south of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. It con¬ sists of the three inhabited islands Malta (the largest), Gozo, and Comino and the two uninhabited islets Comminotto and Filfla. Area: 122 sq mi (315 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 404,000. Capital: Valletta. Malta’s population, nearly all native-born, has a mixture of Italian, Arab, British, and Phoenician heritage. Languages: Maltese, English (both official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic [official]). Cur¬ rency: Maltese lira. Although about one-third of its total land area is arable, Malta imports most of its food; tourism is its major industry. It is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, and its head of government is the prime minister. Malta was inhabited as early as 3800 bc. Although there is limited evidence of a Phoenician pres¬ ence, it seems clearer that the Carthaginians had arrived in Malta by the 6th century bc, and the island came under Roman control in 218 bc. In ad 60 St. Paul the Apostle was shipwrecked on the island and converted the inhabitants to Christianity. It was under Byzantine rule until the Arabs seized control in 870. In 1091 the Normans defeated the Arabs, and Malta was ruled by a succession of feudal lords until the early 16th century. In 1530 it came under the control of the Hospitallers; Napoleon seized con-

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trol in 1798, and the British took it in 1800. The 1802 Treaty of Amiens returned the islands to the Hospitallers; however, the Maltese protested and acknowledged Brit¬ ish sovereignty, which was ratified in the 1814 Treaty of Paris. Malta became self-governing in 1921 but reverted to a colonial regime in 1936. Malta was heavily bombed by Germany and Italy during World War II, and in 1942 it received Britain’s George Cross for “heroism and devotion,” the first time that this medal was not con¬ ferred to an individual. In 1964 Malta gained independence within the Commonwealth, and it became a republic in 1974. When its alliance with Britain ended in 1979, Malta proclaimed its neutral status. In 2004 it joined the European Union.

Malta, Knights of See Knights of Malta

Maltese Breed of toy dog named for the island of Malta, where it may have originated about 2,800 years ago. Delicate-looking but vigorous, affectionate, and lively, it was once the valued pet of the wealthy and aris¬ tocratic. It has a long, silky, pure-white coat, hanging ears, a compact body, and a plumed tail that curves over its back. It stands about 5 in. (13 cm) and weighs up to 7 lbs (3 kg).

Maltese language Principal language of Malta, developed from a dialect of Arabic closely related to those of Algeria and Tunisia. It has been strongly influenced by the Romance languages, especially Italian. Maltese is the only form of Arabic written in the Latin alphabet.

Malthus Vmal-thssV Thomas Robert (b. Feb. 14/17, 1766, Rookery, near Dorking, Surrey, Eng.—d. Dec. 23, 1834, St. Catherine, near Bath, Somerset) British economist and demographer. Born into a prosperous family, he studied at the University of Cambridge and was elected a fellow of Jesus College in 1793. In 1798 he published An Essay on the Principle of Population, in which he argued that population will always tend to out¬ run the food supply—that the increase of population will take place, if unchecked, in a geometrical progression, while the means of subsistence will increase only in an arithmetical progression. He believed population would expand to the limit of subsistence and would be held there by fam¬ ine, war, and ill health. He enlarged on his ideas in later editions of his work (to 1826). He argued that relief measures for the poor should be strictly limited since they tended to encourage the growth of excess population. His theories, though largely disproven, had great influence on contemporary social policy and on such economists as David Ricardo.

Malvinas, Islas See Falkland Isands

mamba Ymam-bsN Any of four or five species of slender, agile elapid snakes (genus Dendroaspis, or Dendraspis ) having large scales and long

1180 I Mamet ► Mamoulian

front teeth. They inhabit sub-Saharan Africa, where they hunt small ani¬ mals. The aggressive black mamba ( D. polylepis ), up to 14 ft (4.2 m) long, may be dull gray, greenish brown, or black, depending on age. It dens in rocky open country. It rears up to strike, biting a person’s head or trunk. Its bite is nearly always fatal without antivenin treatment. The green mamba (e.g., D. angusticeps ) is smaller (to 9 ft, or 2.7 m), more strongly arboreal, and less aggressive.

East African green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps).

E.S. ROSS

Mamet Vmam-itV, David (Alan) (b. Nov. 30, 1947, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. playwright, director, and screenwriter. In 1973 he founded the St. Nicholas Theatre Co. in Chicago. He won wide notice with Sexual Perversity in Chicago (1974) and followed it with plays such as Ameri¬ can Buffalo (1977) and Glengarry Glen Ross (1983, Pulitzer Prize). He became known for rapid-fire dialogue studded with obscenities and for his preoccupation with power relationships and corporate corruption. Mamet used the rhythms and rhetoric of everyday speech to delineate character, describe intricate relationships, and drive dramatic develop¬ ment. His later plays include Speed-the-Plow (1987), Oleanna (1992), and The Cryptogram (1994); his screenplays include The Verdict (1980) and The Untouchables (1986). He also wrote and directed films such as House of Games (1987) and State and Main (2000).

Mamluk Vmam-.lukV dynasty or Mamluke Vmam-o-.liflA dynasty (1250-1517) Rulers of Syria and Egypt. The term mamluk is an Arabic word for slave. Slave soldiers had been used in the Islamic world since the 9th century, and they often exploited the military power vested in them to seize control from the legitimate political authorities. In 1250 a group of mamluk generals seized the throne of the AyyObid dynasty on the death of the sultan Al-Malik al-Salih Ayyub (r. 1240-49). The resulting dynasty legitimized its rule by reconstituting the caliphate of the ‘Abbasid dynasty (destroyed by the Mongols in 1258) and by acting as patrons to the rulers of Mecca and Medina. Under Mamluk rule the remaining crusaders were expelled from the eastern Mediterranean coast, and the Mongols were driven back from Palestine and Syria. Culturally, historical writing and architecture flourished during their rule. A shift in their ethnic makeup from Turkish to Circassian corresponded with their slow decline; their failure to adopt field artillery as weapons (except in siege waif are) contributed to their defeat by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. They afterward remained intact as a social class, however, and continued to exercise a high degree of political autonomy, though they were only one of several forces influencing Egyptian political life. Their power was finally broken by the Albanian-Egyptian officer Muhammad c Au in a mas¬ sacre in 1811. See also Baybars I.

mammal Any member of the class (Mammalia) of warm-blooded ver¬ tebrates having four limbs (except for some aquatic species) and distin¬ guished from other chordate classes by the female’s milk-secreting glands and the presence of hair at some stage of development. Other unique characteristics include a jaw hinged directly to the skull, hearing through bones in the middle ear, a muscular diaphragm separating the pectoral and abdominal cavities, and nonnucleated mature red blood cells. Mam¬ mals range in size from the tiny shrew to the enormous blue whale. Monotremes (platypus and echidna) lay eggs; all other mammals bear live young. Marsupial newborns complete their development outside the womb, sometimes in a pouchlike structure. Placental mammals (see pla¬ centa) are bom at a relatively advanced stage of development. The ear¬

liest mammals date from the late Triassic Period (which ended 206 million years ago); their immediate ancestors were the reptilian therapsids. For 70 million years mammals have been the dominant animals in terrestrial ecosystems, a consequence of two principal factors: the great behavioral adaptability provided by the ability of mammalian young to learn from their elders (a consequence of their dependence on their mothers for nour¬ ishment) and the physical adaptability to a wide range of climates and conditions provided by their warm-bloodedness. See also carnivore; ceta¬ cean; herbivore; insectivore; omnivore; primate; rodent.

mammary gland Vmam-o-reV Milk-producing gland of female mam¬ mals, usually present but undeveloped and nonfunctional in males. Regu¬ lated by the endocrine system, it is derived from a modification of sweat glands. The mammary gland of a woman who has not borne children con¬ sists of a conical disk of glandular tissue, encased in fat that gives the breast its shape. The gland is made up of lobes drained by separate ducts that meet at the nipple. Pregnancy causes the cells lining the lobes to mul¬ tiply, and lactation begins in response to hormones released starting at the time of birth. At the end of lactation, the glands return almost to their state before pregnancy. After menopause, they atrophy and are largely replaced by connective tissue and fat.

mammoth Any of several species (genus Mammuthus ) of extinct elephants whose fossils have been found in Pleistocene deposits (begin¬ ning 1.8 million years ago) on every continent except Australia and South America. The woolly. Northern, or Siberian mammoth (M. primigenius) is the best-known species because the Siberian permafrost preserved numerous carcasses intact. Most species were about the size of modern elephants; some were much smaller. The North American imperial mam¬ moth (M. imperator) grew to a shoulder height of 14 ft (4 m). Many spe¬ cies had a short, woolly undercoat and a long, coarse outer coat. Mammoths had a high, domelike skull and small ears. Their long, downward-pointing tusks sometimes curved over each other. Cave paint¬ ings show them traveling in herds. Mammoths survived until about 10,000 years ago; hunting by humans may have been a cause of their extinction. See also mastodon.

Mammoth Cave National Park National park, southwest-central Kentucky, U.S. The park, authorized in 1926 and established in 1941, occupies a surface area of 82 sq mi (212 sq km) that covers a system of limestone caverns. In 1972 a passage was discovered linking the Mam¬ moth Cave and the Flint Ridge Cave System; the explored underground passages have a combined length of some 329 mi (530 km). The caves are inhabited by various animals that have undergone evolutionary adap¬ tation to the dark, including cave crickets, blindfish, and blind crayfish. Mummified Indian bodies, possibly of pre-Columbian origin, have been found in the caves.

Mamore \ l ma-mo- , ra\ River River, north-central Bolivia. It rises in the Andes Mountains and in its upper course is sometimes known as Rio Grande. It flows north to the Brazilian border, where it is joined by the Guapore River; it forms the border of Bolivia and Brazil as far north as Villa Bella, where it joins the Beni River to form the Madeira River, after a total course of about 1,200 mi (1,900 km). It is navigable to Guajara- Mirim, Braz.

Mamoulian ymo-'mu-le-onV Rouben (b. Oct. 8, 1897, Tiflis, Geor¬ gia, Russian Empire—d. Dec. 4,

1987, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.)

Russian-U.S. director. After training as an actor at the Moscow Art The¬ atre, he moved to London in 1918, where he directed operettas and musicals. After immigrating to the U.S. in 1923, he worked for the The¬ atre Guild and directed the play Porgy (1927); he later directed the original production of its musical adaptation, Porgy and Bess (1935), and later musicals such as Okla¬ homa! (1943) and Carousel (1945).

Invited to direct the film musical Applause (1929), he won acclaim for his innovative camera work; his later films include City Streets (1931),

Queen Christina (1933) with Greta

Ma’mun ► Manaus i 1181

Garbo, Becky Sharp (1935), The Gay Desperado (1936), Blood and Sand (1941), and Silk Stockings (1957). He was noted for the skillful blending of music and sound effects with an imaginative visual rhythm.

Ma’mun \ma-'mun\, al- (b. 786, Baghdad, Iraq—d. August 833, Tar¬ sus, Cilicia) Seventh caliph (r. 813-833) of the ‘Abbasid dynasty. He was the son of the celebrated Harun al-Rashid and after his father’s death (809) defeated his brother al-Amln in a civil war (813) to assume the caliph¬ ate. Attempting to reconcile Sunnite and Shl'ite Muslims, he designated as his heir a Shl'ite, 'All al-Rida, which failed to satisfy Shl'ite extrem¬ ists and angered Sunnites. In any event, al-Ma’mun was predeceased by his heir. He became a supporter of the Mu'taziutes, a theological school whose opinions on such issues as the nature of God and man’s free will were at variance with accepted doctrine and found little popular support. His sponsorship of translations of Greek philosophical and scientific works and his building of observatories and libraries proved a more last¬ ing legacy.

Man, Isle of Island, in the Irish Sea off the northwestern coast of England. Area: 221 sq mi (572 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 76,900. It is a self-governing crown possession of Britain, with its own legislature. The popularly elected House of Keys constitutes one of the most ancient legislative assemblies in the world. Capital: Douglas (pop., 2001: 25,347). The island is about 30 mi (48 km) long and 10 mi (16 km) wide. The Manx breed of tailless cats is believed to have originated there. The isle was home to Irish missionaries beginning in the 5th century ad. It was held by the Norse (9th—13th centuries), Scots (13th—14th centuries), and English settlers (from the 14th century). It was made a crown possession in 1828.

Man, Paul de See Paul de Man

Man o' War (foaled 1917) U.S. Thoroughbred racehorse. In two sea¬ sons (1919-20), he won 20 of 21 races, including the Preakness and Bel¬ mont stakes. (He did not run in the Kentucky Derby.) He sired 64 stakes horses, including War Admiral, a Triple Crown winner (1937). In a 1950 Associated Press poll, Man o’ War was voted the greatest horse of the first half of the 20th century.

man-o'-war bird See frigate bird

Man Ray orig. Emmanuel Radnitzky (b. Aug. 25, 1890, Phila¬ delphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Nov. 18, 1976, Paris, France) U.S. photographer, painter, and filmmaker. He grew up in New York City, where he studied architecture, engineering, and art. With Marcel Duchamp he formed the New York Dada group in 1917 and produced ready-mades. In 1921 he moved to Paris and became associated with the Surrealists. He rediscov¬ ered the technique for making “cameraless” pictures (photograms), which he called “rayographs,” by placing objects on light-sensitive paper; he also experimented with the technique of solarization, which renders part of the image negative and part positive by exposing a print or negative to a flash of light during development. He turned to portrait and fashion photogra¬ phy and made a virtually complete record of the celebrities of Parisian cultural life of the 1920s and ’30s. He also made important contributions as an avant-garde filmmaker in the 1920s.

mana Vma-noN Among Polynesian and Melanesian peoples, a super¬ natural force or power that may be ascribed to persons, spirits, or inani¬ mate objects. Mana may be either good or evil, beneficial or dangerous, but it is not impersonal; it is never spoken of except in connection with powerful beings or things. The term was first used in the 19th century in the West in connection with religion, but mana is now regarded as a sym¬ bolic way of expressing the special qualities attributed to persons of sta¬ tus in a hierarchical society, of providing sanction for their actions, and of explaining their failures. See also animism.

managerial economics Application of economic principles to deci¬ sion making in business firms or other management units. The basic con¬ cepts are drawn from microeconomic theory, but new tools of analysis have been added. Statistical methods, for example, are increasingly important in estimating current and future demand for products. The methods of operations research and programming provide scientific criteria for maxi¬ mizing profit, minimizing cost, and selecting the most profitable combi¬ nation of products. Decision-making theory and game theory, which recognize the conditions of uncertainty and imperfect knowledge under which business managers operate, have contributed to systematic meth¬ ods of assessing investment opportunities.

Managua \ma-'na-gwa\ City (pop., 1995: 864,201), capital of Nicara¬ gua. Located on the southern shore of Lake Managua, it was of minor importance during Spanish colonial times. It was selected as the nation’s capital in 1857 when a choice between Leon and Granada could not be settled. It was devastated by earthquake and fire in 1931 and by another major earthquake in 1972. It was the scene of fighting in 1978-79 during the civil war. The largest city and commercial centre of Nicaragua, it has several institutions of higher education, including the University of Man¬ agua, now part of the National University of Nicaragua. Sites of interest include Dario Park, with its monument to poet Ruben Dario.

Managua, Lake or Xolotlan Lake, western Nicaragua. It occupies an area of 400 sq mi (1,035 sq km), extending 36 mi (58 km) long and 16 mi (25 km) wide. Located north of the city of Managua, it is fed by numerous streams rising in the central highlands and is drained by the Tipitapa River, which flows into Lake Nicaragua. Momotombo Volcano (4,199 ft [1,280 m]) is on the northwestern shore.

Mana la \'ma-na-,la\ In Finnish mythology, the realm of the dead. Manala is ruled by the goddess Louhi, a fierce haglike creature. It is reached by crossing a fiery stream, the river of death, either over a nar¬ row bridge or on a boat brought by a denizen of the other world. Though dark and gloomy, it is not a place of everlasting torment like the Chris¬ tian HELL.

Manama Vma-'na-moV Arabic Al-Manamah City (pop., 1999 est.: 162,000), capital of Bahrain. Situated at the northeastern tip of Bahrain island, it is Bahrain’s largest city, with about one-third of the emirate’s population, and is one of the Persian Gulf’s most important ports. A com¬ mercial and financial centre enriched by Bahrain’s oil wealth, it is linked by causeway with the nearby island city of Muharraq. First mentioned in Islamic chronicles c. 1345, it was taken by the Portuguese in 1521 and by the Safavid Persians in 1602. It has been held, with brief interruptions, by the Khallfah dynasty since 1783. It was the seat of the British politi¬ cal resident for the Persian Gulf (1946-71), after which it became the capital of independent Bahrain.

Manapouri Lake \,ma-na-'pur-e\ Lake, southwestern South Island, New Zealand. With a maximum depth of 1,455 ft (444 m), it is the deep¬ est lake in the country. It is one of the Southern Lakes, located in Fiord¬ land National Park. Its name derives from a Maori word meaning “lake of the sorrowing heart,” and legend holds that its waters are the tears of dying sisters. It has an area of 55 sq mi (142 sq km) and drains a basin of 1,785 sq mi (4,623 sq km).

Manasarowar See Mapam Yumco

Manasseh ben Israel Xmo-'na-so-ben-'iz-re-oL orig. Manoel Dias

Soeiro (b. 1604, Lisbon?—d. Nov. 20, 1657, Middelburg, United Prov¬ inces of the Netherlands) Portuguese-born Dutch Hebrew scholar and Jewish leader. He was born to a family of Marranos whom persecution drove to Amsterdam. A brilliant theology student, he became rabbi of a Portuguese congregation in Amsterdam in 1622 and established the first Hebrew printing press there in 1626. In the belief that the MESSIAH would come only when the Jews were dispersed throughout the world, he lob¬ bied the English government to allow Jews to live in England, and he wrote Vindication of the Jews (1656). His efforts led to unofficial English acceptance of Jewish settlement and, after his death, to the granting of an official charter of protection to the Jews of England in 1664.

manatee Any of three species (family Trichechidae) of slow-moving, shallow-water herbivorous mammals. Manatees have a tapered body end¬ ing in a rounded flipper, no hind flippers, and foreflippers near the head. The Caribbean manatee ( Trichechus manatus) lives along coasts of the southeastern U.S. and northern South America; the Amazonian manatee (T. inunguis ) and the West African manatee ( T. senegalensis) inhabit riv¬ ers and estuaries. Adults are 8-15 ft (2.5-4.5 m) long and weigh up to 1,500 lbs (700 kg). Manatees live singly or in small herds and are pro¬ tected by law in most areas. The manatee or its relative, the dugong, may have given rise to the folklore of mermaids. See also sea cow.

Manaus \ma-'naus\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,517,500), northwestern Bra¬ zil. Located in the heart of the Amazon rainforest, it lies along the north¬ ern bank of the Negro River above its junction with the Amazon River. The first European settlement was a small fort built in 1669. The village, called Villa da Barra, became the capital of the Rio Negro captaincy general in 1809. It prospered from 1890 to 1920 as the hub for the region’s only supply of rubber, after which it declined. Though 900 mi (1,450 km) from

1182 I Manawatu River ► Mandaeanism

the sea, it again became a major inland port and commercial centre, reviv¬ ing economically in the mid-20th century. It has botanical gardens and an opera house, and the National Research Institute of Amazonia (INPA) and the Federal University of Amazonas are located there.

Manawatu \,ma-na- , wa-tii\ River River, south-central North Island, New Zealand. The Manawatu flows northwest to pass between the Rua- hine and Tararua ranges. It then runs southwest past Palmerston North to enter the South Taranaki Bight of the Tasman Sea. It is 113 mi (182 km) long.

Mance \'ma n s\, Jeanne (b. Nov. 12, 1606, Langres, France—d. June 1673, Montreal) French founder of the first hospital in Montreal. A mem¬ ber of a French association that planned a utopian colony at Montreal, she sailed with the first settlers in 1641 and founded the Hotel-Dieu de Mon¬ treal in 1644. After a trip to France (1657), she returned with Sisters Hos¬ pitallers to staff the hospital.

Mancha, La See Castilla-La Mancha Manche, La See English Channel

Manchester City and metropolitan borough (pop., 1999: 431,000), in the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester, northwestern England. Lying northwest of London and east of Liverpool, it was the site of a Roman fort (ad 78-86) but was abandoned after the 4th century. By 919 the town of Manchester had sprung up nearby. In the 16th century it was impor¬ tant in the wool trade, and with the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century it became an important manufacturing city known for its textile production. The world’s first modem railroad, the Liverpool and Manchester, opened in 1830. The city was beset by urban and industrial problems in the second half of the 20th century; thereafter it was rede¬ veloped, ushering in a cultural renaissance. Its many educational institu¬ tions include the University of Manchester.

Manchester City (pop., 2000: 107,006), southern New Hampshire, U.S. Located on the Merrimack River, it is the state’s largest city. It was settled in 1722-23 and incorporated as the town of Derryfield in 1751. One of America’s first textile mills was built there in 1805, beginning a period of rapid industrial growth. Renamed Manchester in 1810, it was incorporated as a city in 1846. Canal systems built in the early 19th cen¬ tury opened navigation to Boston. The textile industry’s decline in the 1930s spurred industrial diversification. It is the seat of St. Anselm Col¬ lege, Notre Dame College, and New Hampshire College.

Manchester, (Victoria) University of Public university in Manchester, England. It has its origins in a nonsectarian college for men founded in 1851. It became a university in 1880, having established col¬ leges in Leeds and Liverpool which later (1903) became universities in their own right. Ernest Rutherford conducted important research on atomic physics at Manchester, and one of the first modem computers was built there in the late 1940s. The university grants undergraduate and advanced academic and professional degrees in a broad range of subjects.

Manchester school Political and economic school of thought led by Richard Cobden and John Bright that originated in meetings of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce in 1820 and dominated the British Liberal Party in the mid-19th century. Its followers believed in laissez-faire economic policies, including free trade, free competition, and freedom of contract, and were isolationist in foreign affairs. Its adherents tended to be businessmen, not theorists.

Manchu People, many of Juchen ancestry, who acquired a Manchu iden¬ tity in the 17th century before conquering China and forming the Qing dynasty (1644-1911/12). Though official policy aimed to maintain the Manchus as a distinct people, this did not prevent considerable intermar¬ riage and adoption of Chinese customs in areas of maximum contact with Chinese. China today recognizes the Manchu as a distinct ethnic group with over 10 million members living mainly in northeastern China.

Manchu dynasty See Qing dynasty

Manchu-Tungus V.man-'chii-tuq-'guzX languages or Tungusic languages Family of about 10 Altaic languages spoken by fewer than 55,000 people in Siberia, Mongolia, and northern China. All the languages have been losing ground for centuries as their speakers switch to the lan¬ guages of surrounding populations—Russian and Yakut in Siberia, and Chinese, Turkic, and Mongolian languages in China. Evenki has about 10,000 speakers in Siberia and far northeastern China. Even has fewer

than 6,000 speakers in northeastern Siberia and the Kamchatka Peninsula. Nanai has fewer than 7,000 speakers near the lower Amur River. Juchen, the tribal language of the founders of the Juchen dynasty, is now extinct, and Manchu is spoken by fewer than 100 people, though some 10 mil¬ lion inhabitants of northeastern China count themselves as ethnically Manchu. Effectively a dialect of Manchu is Xibe, spoken by 10,000 descendants of Manchu-speaking soldiers garrisoned at 18th-century mili¬ tary outposts.

Manchukuo Vman-'chii-'gwoX or Manchuguo Puppet state created in 1932 by Japan out of the three historic provinces of Manchuria. After the Russo-Japanese War (1895), Japan gained control of the Russian-built South Manchurian Railway, and its army established a presence in the area; expansion in Manchuria was seen as necessary for Japan’s status as an emerging world power. In 1931 the Japanese army created an excuse to attack Chinese troops there, and in 1932 Manchukuo was proclaimed an independent state. The last Qing emperor was brought out of retire¬ ment and made Manchukuo’s ruler, but the state was actually rigidly con¬ trolled by the Japanese, who used it as their base for expansion into Asia. An underground guerrilla movement composed of Manchurian soldiers, armed civilians, and Chinese communists opposed the occupying Japa¬ nese, many of whom had come over to settle in the new colony. After Japan’s defeat in 1945 the settlers were repatriated.

Manchuria \man-'chur-e-o\ or Northeast Chinese Dongbei or

Tung-pei \'duq-'ba\ Historical region, northeastern China. It consists of the modem provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang; the northeast¬ ern portion of Inner Mongolia autonomous region is sometimes also included. Throughout the early Chinese dynasties, China had only limited control over Manchuria. In 1211 Genghis Khan invaded and occupied Manchuria. Chinese rebellions overthrew the Yuan dynasty of the Mon¬ gols in 1368, and the Ming dynasty was established. The Qing (Manchu) dynasty originated there (early 17th century) and eventually spread over China. Russia and Japan fought each other for a foothold in the region during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05); after its defeat, Russia ceded southern Manchuria to Japan. The Japanese occupied all of Manchuria in 1931 and created the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. The Soviets captured Manchuria in 1945, and Chinese communist guerrillas soon came to power. In 1953 Beijing divided the region into its three current provinces. It is now one of China’s most important industrial areas.

Mancini, Henry orig. Enrico Nicola Mancini (b. April 16, 1924, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.—d. June 14, 1994, Beverly Hills, Calif.) U.S. com¬ poser. While serving in the army air force during World War II, he met Glenn Miller, and after the war he joined Miller’s band as an arranger and pianist. He first gained wide attention with his jazz-inflected music for the television series Peter Gunn (1958), but he is perhaps best known for his humorous scores for Blake Edwards’s Pink Panther movies. He worked extensively with Edwards throughout his career. He wrote scores for more than 80 films and won four Academy Awards for two songs—“Moon River” and “Days of Wine and Roses”—and for the film scores for Break¬ fast at Tiffany’s (1961) and Victor/Victoria (1982). He also won 20 Grammy Awards and 2 Emmys.

Mancini \man-'che-ne\ family Family of Italian sisters, noblewomen noted for their great beauty. Nieces of Jules Cardinal Mazarin, they moved to France at an early age. Laure Mancini, duchess de Mercoeur (1636— 57), married Louis de Vendome, duke de Mercoeur and grandson of King Henry IV. Olympe Mancini, countess de Soissons (1639-1708), was a mistress of Louis XIV. She was involved with her sister, Marie Anne, in the notorious “Affair of the Poisons” and was also accused of poisoning her husband; she was the mother of Prince Eugene of Savoy. Marie Man¬ cini, princess de Colonna (1640-1715), was also a mistress of Louis XIV; Mazarin intrigued to prevent their marriage, and she spent most of her life in Spain. Hortense Mancini, duchess de Mazarin (1646-99), married Armand Charles de la Porte, who assumed the Mazarin title. After leav¬ ing her husband, she became a famous beauty at the English court of Charles II. Marie Anne Mancini, duchess de Bouillon (1649-1714), was known for her literary salon but was banished in 1680 for the alleged poi¬ soning of the sorceress La Voisin (Catherine Monvoisin).

Mandaeanism \man-'de-3- l ni-z3m\ Ancient Middle Eastern Gnostic sect surviving in Iraq and southwestern Iran. Like other dualistic systems, it stresses salvation of the soul through esoteric knowledge, or gnosis, of its divine origin. (Its name derives from mandayya, “having knowledge.”) In its cosmology, evil Archons obstruct the soul’s ascent through the

mandala ► Mandeville I 1183

heavenly spheres to reunion with the supreme deity. Unlike many Gnos¬ tic systems, Mandaeanism supports marriage and forbids sexual license. It is also characterized by elaborate cultic rituals, particularly for baptism. Mandaeans view Jesus as a false messiah but revere John the Baptist, whose life is chronicled in their sacred writings. See also dualism, Gnosticism.

mandala Vmon-ds-loX In Tantric Hinduism and Buddhism (see Vajray- ana), a diagram representing the universe, used in sacred rites and as an instrument of meditation. The mandala serves as a collection point for uni¬ versal forces. By mentally “entering” the mandala and moving toward its centre, one is guided through the cosmic processes of disintegration and reintegration. Mandalas may be painted on paper or cloth, drawn on the ground, or fashioned of bronze or stone. Two types of mandalas repre¬ sent different aspects of the universe: the garbha-dhatu (“womb world”), in which the movement is from one to the many, and the vajra-dhatu (“diamond world”), from the many into one.

Mandalay City (pop., 2004 est.: 1,176,900), central Myanmar (Burma). Situated on the Irrawaddy River, it is the country’s second largest city, after Yangon. It was built in 1857-59 by King Mindon to replace Amarapura as his capital. The last capital of the Myanmar kingdom, it fell to Britain in 1885. It was nearly destroyed during the Japanese occupation in World War II. An important Buddhist religious centre, it is the site of the famous Mahamuni pagoda and of 730 pagodas that house marble tablets inscribed with Buddhist scriptures.

Mandan \'man-,dan\ North American Plains Indian people living mostly in North Dakota, U.S. Their name is probably of French derivation. The Mandan language, which is Siouan, is nearly extinct. The Mandan, who lived in dome-shaped, earth-covered lodges clustered in stockaded vil¬ lages, planted corn, beans, pumpkins, and sunflowers, hunted buffalo, and made pottery and baskets. They held elaborate ceremonies, including the sun dance and the bear ceremony, a healing and war-preparation rite. They had age-graded warrior societies as well as shamanistic and women’s societies. Artists depicted heroic deeds on buffalo robes. George Catlin portrayed Mandan life and people in a series of paintings. According to him, they called themselves Seepohskahnumahkahkee, meaning “People of the Pheasant.” By the mid-19th century the Mandan, reduced by small¬ pox, were removed to North Dakota’s Fort Berthold Reservation, where they live with the Hidatsa and the Arikara as the Three Affiliated Tribes. Some 350 people claimed sole Mandan descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Mandarin In imperial China, a public official drawn from the ranks of the lesser officeholders who had achieved success in the Chinese examina¬ tion system. The word comes from the Portuguese version of the Malay term for a minister of state. It has come to mean a pedantic official, a bureaucrat, or a person of position and influence (and usually a tradition¬ alist or reactionary mindset) in intellectual or literary circles. The Man¬ darin language is the most widely spoken of the Chinese languages.

Mande Vman-.da, man-'da\ languages Branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Mande comprises 40 languages of West Africa with more than 20 million speakers in a more or less contiguous area of southeast¬ ern Senegal, The Gambia, southern Mauritania, southwestern Mali, east¬ ern Guinea, northern and eastern Sierra Leone, northern Liberia, and western Cote d’Ivoire. Substantial numbers are also found in Guinea- Bissau, Guinea, and Burkina Faso; and there are very much smaller, iso¬ lated pockets in the region. The most significant subgroup is the Mandekan complex—a continuum of languages and dialects, including those spoken by the Bambara, Malinke, Maninka, and Dyula—spoken from Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea east through Mali to Burkina Faso. Mande, spoken in Sierra Leone, also has more than a million speakers. Several independent writing systems based on the syllable were devel¬ oped by speakers of Mande languages. The best-known is the Vai script, but Mende, Loma, and Kpelle also have their own scripts.

Mandeb, Strait of or Bab el-Mandeb Vbab-al-'man-deb \ Arabic Bab al-Mandab Strait that connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden. Its land boundaries are the Arabian Peninsula (northeast) and the African coast (southeast), which are separated by some 20 mi (32 km). The strait is divided into two channels by Perim Island. Its name means “Gate of Tears,” referring to the dangers that formerly attended its navigation.

Mandel \ma n -'del\, Georges orig. Louis-Georges Rothschild

(b. June 5, 1885, Chatou, France—d. July 7, 1944, Fontainebleau) French political leader. A member of a prosperous Jewish family, he served as a personal aide to Georges Clemenceau (1906-09, 1917-20), in the National

Assembly (1919-24, 1928^40), and in cabinet posts (1934-40). As min¬ ister of the interior (1940), he supported Paul Reynaud’s refusal to accept an armistice with Germany. Mandel was arrested in 1940, imprisoned in France and Germany, then returned to Paris in 1944, where he was shot on orders of the Vichy police chief.

Mandela \man-'del-3. Nelson (b. July 18, 1918, Umtata, Cape of Good Hope, S.Af.) South African black nationalist leader and states¬ man. The son of a Xhosa chief, Man¬ dela studied law at the University of Witwatersrand and in 1944 joined the African National Congress (ANC). After the Sharpeville massa¬ cre (1960), he abandoned his non¬ violent stance and helped found the “Spear of the Nation,” the ANC’s military wing. Arrested in 1962, he was sentenced to life imprisonment.

He retained wide support among South Africa’s black population and became an international cause celebre. Released by Pres. F.W. de Klerk in 1990, he replaced Oliver Tambo as president of the ANC in 1991. In 1993 Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to end apartheid and bring about the transition to nonra- cial democracy. In 1994 he was elected president in the country’s first universal suffrage elections; by the time he stepped down in 1999, Mandela was the most universally respected figure of postcolonial Africa.

Mandelbrot Vman-dsl-.brotV, Benoit B. (b. Nov. 20, 1924, Warsaw, Pol.) Polish-born U.S. mathematician. He received a doctorate from the University of Paris and emigrated to the U.S. in 1958. He is best known for his work with fractals (a term he coined; see fractal geometry), which, he showed, can occur in many different places in mathematics and in nature. He was influenced by Gaston Maurice Julia (1893-1978), whose work on dynamical systems theory had been forgotten until the 1970s, when Mandelbrot’s fundamental computer experiments and use of com¬ puter graphics breathed new life into it. The Mandelbrot set is a math¬ ematical set of imaginary numbers generated from a simple equation. It appears infinitely complex when graphed on a computer.

Mandelshtam Wsn-dyil-'shtamV Osip (Emilyevich) or Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (b. Jan. 15, 1891, Warsaw, Pol., Russian Empire—d. Dec. 27, 1938, Vtoraya Rechka, near Vladivostok, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian poet and critic. He published his first poems in 1910. A leader of the Acmeist poets, who rejected the mysticism and abstrac¬ tion of Russian Symbolism, he wrote intellectually demanding, apolitical verse in such volumes as Tristia (1922). In 1934 he was arrested for an epigram about Joseph Stalin. While suffering from mental illness, he com¬ posed the Voronezh Notebooks , which contain some of his finest lyrics. Arrested again in 1938, he died in custody at age 47. Most of his works went unpublished in the Soviet Union until after Stalin’s death, and he was almost unknown to generations of Russians and in other countries until the mid 1960s.

Mander \'man-dor \, Karel van (b. May 1548, Meulebeke, Flanders, Spanish Netherlands—d. Sept. 2, 1606, Amsterdam, Neth.) Dutch painter, poet, and writer. Born of a noble family, after much wandering he settled in Haarlem in 1583 and founded a successful academy of painting with Hendrik Goltzius and Cornelis Cornelisz (1562-1638). He is best known for The Book of Painters (1604), which contains about 175 biographies of Dutch, Flemish, and German painters of the 15th—16th centuries; it became for the northern countries what Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Painters had been for Italy.

Mandeville Vman-do-.vilV Sir John (fl. 14th century) English pur¬ ported author of a collection of Middle English traveler’s tales. The tales are selections from the narratives of genuine travelers, embellished with Mandeville’s additions and described as his own adventures. The Voyage and Travels of Sir John Mandeville, Knight originated in French c. 1356- 57; an English version appeared c. 1375. The narrator declares that he is

Nelson Mandela, 1990.

1184 I Mandingo ► mango

writing of his travels in the years 1322 to 1356. Because most of the material was available in contempo¬ rary encyclopaedias and travel books, it is not clear whether the author ever traveled at all, but his lit¬ erary skill and imagination have kept the book popular and highly read¬ able. The actual author of the tales remains unknown. It is not certain that the English knight Sir John Mandeville ever existed.

Mandingo See Malinke Mandinka See Malinke

mandolin V.man-do-'linV Small stringed instrument related to the LUTE.

It evolved in the 17th century in Italy, but its present form was strongly influenced by the 19th-century maker Pasquale Vinaccia (1806- 82) of Naples. It has a pear-shaped body with a deeply vaulted back, a short fretted fingerboard, and four pairs of steel strings. (The American folk mandolin is a shallow, flat-backed version.) It is played with a plec¬ trum; each pair of strings is strummed rapidly back and forth to produce a characteristic tremolo.

mandrake Any of six plant species of the genus Mandragora (night¬ shade family), native to the Mediterranean and the Himalayas. The best- known species, M. officinarum, has a short stem bearing a tuft of ovate flowers, with a thick, fleshy, often forked root. The mandrake has long been known for its poisonous properties. In ancient times it was used as a narcotic and an aphrodisiac, and it was believed to have magical pow¬ ers. When pulled from the ground, its forked root, supposed to resemble the human form, was said to utter a shriek that killed or drove mad any¬ one who heard it. Once pulled, however, the plant was said to provide soothing sleep, heal wounds, induce love, and facilitate pregnancy. In North America, the name “mandrake” is often used for the mayapple {Podophyllum peltatum ), a spring forest wildflower.

mandrill Diurnal monkey (family Cercopithecidae, usually genus Man- drillus ) of equatorial African rainfor¬ ests, known for its striking colouring. The stout-bodied, prima¬ rily terrestrial mandrill has a short tail, prominent brow ridges, and small, close-set, sunken eyes. The ribbed bare skin on the adult male’s cheeks is bright blue, with scarlet on the nose; the buttock pads are pink to crimson, shading to bluish; and the beard and neck are yellow. The adult male is about 3 ft (90 cm) long and weighs about 45 lb (20 kg); the female is duller and smaller. Man¬ drills eat fruit, roots, insects, and small reptiles and amphibians.

Manes See Mani

Manet \ma-'na\, Edouard (b.

Jan. 23,1832, Paris, France—d. April 30, 1883, Paris) French painter and printmaker. His father, a prosperous civil servant, wanted him to pursue a naval career, but he was a poor student interested only in drawing. After having a few paintings accepted by the Salon, in 1863 the jury of the Salon rejected his Dejeuner sur I’herbe, and so Manet instead exhibited it at the Salon des Refuses (established to exhibit the many works rejected by the official Salon). This large canvas aroused loud disapproval from critics, who were offended by the presence of a naked woman in the company of two young men clothed in contemporary dress. At the Salon of 1865, his painting Olympia, created two years earlier, also caused a scandal: the painting’s reclining female nude gazes brazenly at the viewer and is depicted in a harsh, brilliant light that obliterates traditional modeling and turns her into an almost two-dimensional figure. In the mid 1870s he

Mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx).

RUSS KINNE/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Sir John Mandeville, detail from a manuscript, early 15th century; in the British Library (MS. Add. 24,189)

REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF THE BRITISH UBRARY

became friendly with Claude Monet and the other Impressionists; while Manet would not participate in their independent exhibitions, for a time he experimented with some of their techniques. In 1882 he created the paint¬ ing A Bar at the Folies-Bergere (1882), a daring, controversial composition that was radical in its obliteration of the boundary between the viewer and what is viewed. The critical resistance to Manet’s work did not abate until near the end of his career; it was not until the 20th century that his repu¬ tation was secured by art historians and critics. His daring, unflinching approach to his painting and to the art world assured both him and his work a pivotal place in the history of modern art.

A Bar at the Folies-Bergere, oil on canvas by Edouard Manet, 1882; in the Cour- tauld Institute Galleries, London.

COURTAULD INSTITUTE GALLERIES, LONDON (COURTAULD COLLECTION)

Manfred Italian Manfredi (b. c. 1232—d. Feb. 26, 1266, near Ben- evento, Kingdom of Naples) King of Sicily (1258-66). Bom out of wed¬ lock, the son of Frederick II, he was made vicar of Italy and Sicily for his half brother Conrad IV, but, following Conrad’s death, Manfred sought the Sicilian crown for himself. He resisted Pope Alexander IV’s efforts to assign the throne to an English rival, and, after fighting off a papal army, Manfred was crowned king in 1258. He became a defender of the Ghibellines in northern Italy (see Guelphs and Ghibellines). Pope Urban IV declared Charles of Anjou (later Charles I) king of Sicily, and Manfred fell in battle against Charles’s army.

mangal-kavya Vmoq-gol-'ka-vyoV Type of verse in honour of a god or goddess in Bengal. Most mangal-kavya tell how a local deity estab¬ lished his or her worship on earth. They are often recited at the festivals of the deities they praise. Some have become so popular that performers sing them to entertain village audiences. Many variants exist, since each singer is free to change the verses. Most are written in a simple couplet form, using earthy imagery drawn from village, field, and river.

manganese Vmaq-go-.nezV Metallic chemical element, one of the tran¬ sition elements, chemical symbol Mn, atomic number 25. It is a silvery white, hard, brittle metal, widely distributed in Earth’s crust in combina¬ tion with other elements. Nodules rich in manganese occur in huge quan¬ tities on the seafloor, but no economical way to mine them has been devised. More than 95% of the manganese produced is used in iron and steel alloys and much of the rest in nonferrous aluminum and magnesium alloys to improve their corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. Manganese compounds, in which it has various valences, are used in fer¬ tilizers and textile printing and as reagents and raw materials. Potassium permanganate is used for disinfecting, deodorizing, and bleaching and as a reagent in analysis. Manganese is essential to plants for growth and to higher animals to promote the action of many enzymes.

mango Evergreen tree and fruit {Mangifera indica ) of the sumac, or cashew, family, one of the most important and widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. The yellow to orange fruit is juicy, distinctively spicy, and a rich source of vitamins A, C, and D. Mango fruit varies in shape, colour, and size from ovoid to long, from vividly red and yellow to dull green, and from plum- to melon-size. It is used in Theravada Buddhist

mangrove ► Manipur I 1185

ceremonies. The long-lived tree reaches 50-60 ft (15-18 m) and has long, lance-shaped leaves and clusters of small, pinkish, fragrant flowers.

mangrove Any of certain shrubs and trees of the families Rhizopho- raceae, Verbenaceae, Sonneratiaceae, and Arecaceae (palm) that grow in dense thickets or forests along tidal estuaries, in salt marshes, and on muddy coasts. The term also applies to the thickets and forests of such plants. Mangroves characteristically have prop roots (exposed, support¬ ing roots). In addition, in many species respiratory, or knee, roots project above the mud and have small openings through which air enters, pass¬ ing through the soft, spongy tissue to the roots beneath the mud. Man¬ grove fruits put out an embryonic root before they fall from the tree; the root may fix itself in the mud before the fruit separates from the parent. Likewise, branches and trunks put out adventitious roots which, once they are secure in the mud, send up new shoots. The common mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) grows to about 30 ft (9 m) tall and bears short, thick, leathery leaves on short stems, and pale-yellow flowers. Its fruit is sweet and wholesome.

Mangu See Mongke Manhae See Han Yongun

Manhattan Borough (pop., 2000: 1,537,195) of New York City, south¬ eastern New York, U.S. It includes all of Manhattan island and three smaller islands in the East River. Bounded by the Hudson River, Harlem River, East River, and Upper New York Bay, it is said to have been pur¬ chased by Peter Minuit in 1626 from the Manhattan Indians with trinkets valued at 60 guilders. Incorporated as New Amsterdam in 1653, it was obtained by Britain in 1664 and renamed New York City. In 1898 Man¬ hattan was chartered as one of five boroughs making up Greater New York. It is one of the world’s great commercial, financial, and cultural centres. Among its many points of interest are Central Park, the Empire State Building, the site of the former World Trade Center, the United Nations headquarters, Wall Street, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, Carnegie Hall, Colum¬ bia University, the Juiluard School, and New York University.

Manhattan Project (1942-45) U.S. government research project that produced the first atomic bomb. In 1939 U.S. scientists urged Pres. Fran¬ klin D. Roosevelt to establish a program to study the potential military use of fission, and $6,000 was appropriated. By 1942 the project was code- named Manhattan, after the site of Columbia University, where much of the early research was done. Research also was carried out at the Univer¬ sity of California and the University of Chicago. In 1943 a laboratory to construct the bomb was established at Los Alamos, N.M., and staffed by scientists headed by J. Robert Oppenheimer. Production also was carried out at Oak Ridge, Tenn., and Hanford, Wash. The first bomb was exploded in a test at Alamogordo air base in southern New Mexico. By its end the project had cost some $2 billion and had involved 125,000 people.

Mani \ma-'ne\ or Manes \ma-'ne, 'ma-nez\ or Manichaeus V.ma-no-'ke-osV (b. April 14, 216, southern Babylonia—d. 274?, Gunde- shapur) Persian founder of Manichaeism. He had his first vision of an angel in his boyhood, and when he was 24 the angel reappeared and called him to preach a new religion. He traveled to India and made converts there. The Persian king Shapur I permitted him to preach in the Persian empire, but, during the reign of Bahram I, Mani was attacked by Zoroastrian priests. After a 26-day trial he was sentenced to prison, where he died.

manic-depressive psychosis See bipolar disorder

Manichaeism Vma-no-.ke-.i-zom, .ma-no-'ke-.i-zoirA Dualistic religion founded by Mani in Persia in the 3rd century ad. Inspired by a vision of an angel, Mani viewed himself as the last in a line of prophets that included Adam, Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus. His writings, now mostly lost, formed the Manichaean scriptures. Manichaeism held that the world was a fusion of spirit and matter, the original principles of good and evil, and that the fallen soul was trapped in the evil, material world and could reach the transcendent world only by way of the spirit. Zealous mission¬ aries spread its doctrine through the Roman empire and the East. Vigor¬ ously attacked by both the Christian church and the Roman state, it disappeared almost entirely from Western Europe by the end of the 5th century but survived in Asia until the 14th century. See also dualism.

Manicouagan ^ma-ni-'kwa-gonX River River, eastern Quebec prov¬ ince, Canada. Rising near the Labrador border, it flows south to empty into the St. Lawrence River near its mouth. From its remotest headstream

it is more than 340 mi (550 km) long. The region’s dense forests are the source of its Indian name, meaning “where there is bark.” The Daniel- Johnson Dam, one of the world’s largest multiarch dams, generates hydro¬ electric power.

Manifest Destiny Concept of U.S. territorial expansion westward to the Pacific Ocean. The phrase was coined in 1845 by the editor John L. O’Sullivan, who described the U.S. annexation of Texas and, by exten¬ sion, the occupation of the rest of the continent as a divine right of the American people. The term was used to justify the U.S. annexation of Oregon, New Mexico, and California and later U.S. involvement in Alaska, Hawaii, and the Philippines.

manifold In mathematics, a topological space (see topology) with a family of local coordinate systems related to each other by certain classes of coordinate transformations. Manifolds occur in algebraic geometry, dif¬ ferential equations, and classical dynamics. They are studied for their glo¬ bal properties by the methods of algebra and algebraic topology and form a natural domain for the global analysis of differential equations. See also tensor analysis.

Manila City (pop., 2000: city, 1,581,082; metro, area, 9,932,560), capi¬ tal of the Philippines. Located on Luzon island on the eastern shore of Mania Bay, it is the chief port and the economic, political, and cultural centre of the Philippines. The walled Muslim settlement originally built on the site was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors, who founded the fortress city of Intramuros in 1571. It was briefly held by the British (1762-63) dur¬ ing the Seven Years' War. During the Spanish-American War, U.S. forces gained control of Manila in 1898. Occupied by the Japanese in 1942, it was widely damaged during the fight for its recapture by U.S. forces in 1945. In 1946 it became the capital of the newly independent Republic of the Philippines, and was rebuilt. Quezon City became the capital in 1948, but Manila regained that position in 1976. In addition to its diver¬ sified industries, including shipbuilding and food processing, it is the seat of several universities.

Manila Bay Inlet of the South China Sea extending into southwestern Luzon island, Philippines. Considered one of the world’s great harbours, it forms a nearly landlocked body of water with an area of 770 sq mi (2,000 sq km). It measures 36 mi (58 km) across at its widest point. The decisive Battle of Mania Bay, in the Spanish-American War, took place there in 1898. The Japanese gained control of the bay in 1942 during World War II, but it was recaptured by U.S. forces in 1945. Corregidor Island, the scene of intense fighting in the war, divides the bay’s entrance into the South Channel and the North Channel.

Manila Bay, Battle of (May 1, 1898) Naval engagement in the Spanish-American War. The U.S. Asiatic Squadron under George Dewey was ordered to sail from its Hong Kong base to destroy the Spanish fleet then in the Philippines. In one morning the guns of Dewey’s squadron completely destroyed the Spanish ships anchored in Manila Bay. The Spanish suffered 381 casualties, the Americans fewer than 10. Manila later surrendered and was occupied by U.S. troops in August. The battle estab¬ lished the U.S. as a major naval power.

Manin \ma-‘nen\, Daniele (b. May 13, 1804, Venice—d. Sept. 22, 1857, Paris, France) Italian leader of the Risorgimento in Venice. A law¬ yer in the Austrian province of Venitia, Manin became a proponent of home rule and was imprisoned in 1848. He was freed following the rebel¬ lion that year and became president of the Venetian republic, reluctantly accepting union with the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the name of Italian unification. He led a heroic defense of Venice against an Austrian siege, but he was forced to surrender in 1849. Banished, he lived in Paris the rest of his life, but in 1868 his body was returned to liberated Venice for a state funeral.

manioc See cassava

Manipur Vmo-ni-.pCuA State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 2,388,634), northeast¬ ern India. Occupying an area of 8,621 sq mi (22,327 sq km), it is bor¬ dered by Myanmar (Burma) and the states of Nagaand, Assam, and Mizoram; its capital is Imphal. Its two main physical features are the Manipur River valley and the western mountainous region. In 1762 and 1824 Manipur requested British assistance in repelling Burmese inva¬ sions. The British administered the area in the 1890s, but in 1907 a local government took over; a tribal uprising in 1917 led to a new government administered from Assam. In 1947 Manipur acceded to the Indian union;

1186 I Manitoba ► Mannerism

it was ruled as a union territory until it became a state in 1972. Agricul¬ ture and forestry are economic mainstays.

Manitoba X.ma-ni-'to-boX Province (pop., 2001: 1,119,583), central Canada. It is bounded by Nunavut, Hudson Bay, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and by the U.S.; its capital is Winnipeg. Three-fifths of its territory is cov¬ ered by the Canadian Shield, an area of rocks, forests, and rivers. The region was first inhabited by the Inuit (Eskimo) and by the Cree, Assiniboin, and Ojibwa peoples. The Hudson's Bay Co. opened Manitoba to European influence, and the region became a focus of French and British compe¬ tition for Canadian fur trade dominance; it was ceded by France to Brit¬ ain in 1763. The Metis rebellion led to the passage of the Manitoba Act in 1870, making it the fifth province of the Dominion of Canada. Steam¬ boat and rail transportation opened the province to settlers from Europe in the late 19th century. Though much of the economy is based on farm¬ ing, lumbering, and mining, heavy industry has become important to an expanding Winnipeg.

Manitoba, Lake Lake, south-central Manitoba, Canada. Located northwest of Winnipeg, it drains into Lake Winnipeg. It is more than 125 mi (200 km) long and up to 28 mi (45 km) wide, with an area of 1,785 sq mi (4,624 sq km). It was discovered in 1738 by Pierre La Verendrye, who named it Lac des Prairies. The name Manitoba is believed to come from the Algonquian word maniot-bau or maniot-wapau (“strait of the spirit”).

Manitoba, University of Canadian public university in Winnipeg, founded in 1877. It has faculties of agricultural and food sciences, archi¬ tecture, arts and sciences, education, engineering, law, graduate studies, management, medicine, human ecology, and social work, among other fields. Campus facilities include centres for the study of aging, defense and security, and diabetes.

Manizales \,ma-ne-'sa-las\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 337,580), central Colombia. It is situated on a ridge of the Cordillera Central of the Andes Mountains, at an elevation of 6,975 ft (2,126 m) above sea level; its cathedral is visible for miles in all directions. Founded in 1848, it is the commercial centre of Colombia’s most important coffee-growing district. It is connected by highway and railroad with Cali and by cableway with Mariquita. It is the seat of the University of Caldas.

Manjusri V.mon-'jii-shreV In Mahayana Buddhism, the bodhisattva per¬ sonifying supreme wisdom. He is usually considered a celestial being, though some traditions give him a human history. Sutras were com¬ posed in his honor by ad 250, and he appears in Buddhist art by ad 400.

He is often shown wearing princely ornaments and holding aloft the sword of wisdom, and he is some¬ times seated on a lion or a blue lotus.

His cult spread widely in China in the 8th century, and Mount Wutai in Shanxi province, which is dedicated to him, is covered with his temples.

Mankiewicz Vman-ki-.witsV Joseph L(eo) (b. Feb. 11, 1909,

Wilkes-Barre, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 5,

1993, Mount Kisco, N.Y.) U.S. film director, producer, and screenwriter.

He wrote scripts for Paramount from 1929 and later produced movies such as The Philadelphia Story (1940) and Woman of the Year (1942).

Known for his witty, urbane dialogue and memorable characters, he wrote and directed films such as A Letter to Three Wives (1949, Academy Awards for best director and screenplay). All About Eve (1950, Academy Awards for best picture, director, and screenplay), and The Barefoot Con- tessa (1954), and directed Julius Caesar (1953), Suddenly Last Summer (1959), and the disastrously expensive Cleopatra (1963). His older brother, Herman (1897-1953), was a screenwriter and a famous wit, best remembered as the principal author of Citizen Kane (1941, Academy Award).

Manley, Michael (Norman) (b. Dec. 10, 1924, St. Andrew, Jam.—d. March 6, 1997, Kingston) Jamaican political leader. Son of a prime minister of Jamaica and a sculptor, Manley was a leader of the Peo¬ ple’s National Party and the National Worker’s Union before becoming prime minister in 1972. His leftist government made significant improve¬ ments in housing, education, and health care, but a dramatic rise in oil prices precipitated an economic crisis. Much of the middle class fled the country, unemployment rose to 30%, and violence broke out in the run-up to the 1980 election, in which he was defeated. He was reelected in 1989, this time as a moderate; he stepped down in 1992 for health reasons.

Mann, Horace (b. May 4, 1796, Franklin, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 2, 1859, Yellow Springs, Ohio) U.S. educator, the first great American advocate of public education. Raised in poverty, Mann educated himself at the Franklin, Mass., town library and gained admission to Brown Univer¬ sity. He later studied law and was elected to the state legislature. As state secretary of education he vig¬ orously espoused educational reform, arguing that in a democratic society education should be free and universal, nonsectarian, and reliant on well-trained, professional teach¬ ers. In his later years he served in the U.S. Congress (1848-53) and as first president of Antioch College, (1853—

59) and he worked resolutely to end SLAVERY.

Mann Vman\, Thomas (b. June 6,

1875, Liibeck, Ger.—d. Aug. 12,

1955, near Zurich, Switz.) German novelist and essayist, considered the greatest German novelist of the 20th century. After a brief period of office work, Mann devoted himself to writing, as had his elder brother Heinrich (1871-1950). Buddenbrooks (1901), his first novel, was an elegy for old bourgeois virtues. In the novella Death in Venice (1912), a sombre mas¬ terpiece, he took up the tragic dilemma of the artist in a collapsing soci¬ ety. Though ardently patriotic at the start of World War I, after 1919 he slowly revised his views of the authoritarian German state. His great novel The Magic Mountain (1924) clarified his growing espousal of Enlighten¬ ment principles as one strand of a complex and multifaceted whole. An outspoken opponent of Nazism, he fled to Switzerland on Adolf Hitler’s accession; he settled in the U.S. in 1938 but returned to Switzerland in 1952. His tetralogy Joseph and His Brothers (1933-43) concerns the bib¬ lical Joseph. Doctor Faustus (1947), his most directly political novel, analyzes the darker aspects of the German soul. The often hilarious Felix Krull, Confidence Man (1954) remained unfinished. He is noted for his finely wrought style enriched by humour, irony, and parody and for his subtle, many-layered narratives of vast intellectual scope. His essays examined such figures as Leo Tolstoy, Sigmund Freud, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Nietzsche, Anton Chekhov, and Friedrich Schiller. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929.

Mannerheim Vma-nor-.hamV, Carl Gustaf (Emil) (b. June 4, 1867, Villnas, Fin.—d. Jan. 27, 1951, Lausanne, Switz.) Finnish soldier and president of Finland (1944^-6). A career officer in the Russian imperial army (1889-1917), he commanded the anti-Bolshevik forces (1918) in the Finnish Civil War and expelled the Soviet forces. He served as regent of Finland (1918-19) until the new republic was declared. As chairman of the national defense council (1931-39) he oversaw construction of the Mannerheim line of fortifications across the Karelian Isthmus. As com¬ mander in chief of Finnish forces (1939-40, 1941—44), he won initial successes against greatly superior Soviet forces in the Russo-Finnish War (1939-40). Named president of the Finnish republic in 1944, he negoti¬ ated a peace agreement with the Soviets.

Mannerism Artistic style that predominated in Italy from the end of the High Renaissance in the 1520s to the beginnings of the Baroque period c. 1590. Mannerism originated in Florence and Rome but ultimately spread as far as central and northern Europe. A reaction to the harmoni¬ ous Classicism and idealized naturalism of High Renaissance art, Man¬ nerism was concerned with solving intricate artistic problems, such as portraying nudes in complex poses. The figures in Mannerist works fre-

Manjusri, basalt figure from Java,

1343; formerly in the Museum fur Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen, Ber¬ lin (missing from 1945).

COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM FUR INDISCHE KUNST, STAATUCHE MUSEEN, BERLIN

O' *v

Horace Mann

COURTESY OF ANTIOCH COLLEGE, YELLOW SPRINGS, OHIO

Mannheim ► Mantineia I 1187

quently have graceful but queerly elongated limbs, small heads, and styl¬ ized facial features, while their poses seem difficult or contrived. The deep, linear perspectival space of High Renaissance painting is flattened and obscured so that the figures appear as a decorative arrangement of forms in front of a flat background of indeterminate dimensions. Man¬ nerists sought a continuous refinement of form and concept, pushing exag¬ geration and contrast to great limits. After being superseded by the Baroque style, it was seen as decadent and degenerative. By the 20th cen¬ tury it was appreciated anew for its technical bravura and elegance. Major artists who practiced the style include Parmigianino, Federico Zuccaro, and II Bronzino.

Mannheim City (pop., 2002: city, 308,385; metro, area, 1,568,679), southwestern Germany. One of Europe’s largest inland ports, it is situated on the Rhine River at the mouth of the Neckar River. It was a village in the 8th century, fortified by Elector Frederick IV, and chartered in 1607. The town was twice destroyed in wars during the 17th century and was rebuilt when the Palatine electors (see Palatinate) moved their residence there in 1720. Destroyed again in 1795, the city was rebuilt and became a centre of the revolutionary movement in 1848. Mannheim is an industrial cen¬ tre, manufacturing chemicals, textiles, and fertilizers.

Mannheim Vman- 1 hlm\ / Karl (b. March 27, 1893, Budapest, Austria- Hungary—d. Jan. 9, 1947, London, Eng.) Hungarian sociologist. Mann¬ heim taught in Germany (University of Heidelberg, 1926-30; Frankfurt am Main, 1930-33) before the rise of Adolph Hitler. He was invited to England by political scientist Harold Laski and for the rest of his career taught there (London School of Economics, 1933—43; University of Lon¬ don, 1943-47). He helped found the sociology of knowledge, the study of how knowledge is produced and maintained in societies. He empha¬ sized the role that ideology plays in shaping knowledge, a view he dis¬ cussed in his major work, Ideology and Utopia (1929).

Manning, Henry Edward known as Cardinal Manning (b. July 15, 1808, Totteridge, Hertfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 14, 1892, London) Brit¬ ish Roman Catholic cardinal. The son of a banker and member of Par¬ liament, he was ordained a priest of the Church of England in 1833. A member of the Oxford movement, he became a Catholic in 1851 and was ordained a priest later that year. He rose rapidly in rank, being appointed archbishop of Westminster in 1865 and cardinal in 1875. He favoured the centralization of authority in the church (Ultramontanism) and supported stronger wording on papal infallibility than was eventually adopted by the First Vatican Council. He established many schools and was highly regarded for his concern for social welfare.

manorialism or seignorialism Vsan-'yor-e-ol-i-zomV Political, eco¬ nomic, and social system by which the peasants of medieval Europe were tied to their land and their lord through serfdom. The basic unit was the manor, a self-sufficient landed estate, or fief, under the control of a lord. Free tenants paid rent or provided military service in exchange for the use of the land. Peasants farmed small plots of land and owed rent and labor to their lord, and most were not free to leave the estate. The manorial system was flourishing in Western Europe by the 8th century and had begun to decline by the 13th century, while in Eastern Europe it achieved its greatest strength after the 15th century.

Mansa Musa See Musa

Mansfield, Katherine orig.

Kathleen Mansfield Beau¬ champ (b. Oct. 4, 1888, Welling¬ ton, N.Z.—d. Jan. 9, 1923, Gurdjiefif Institute, near Fontainebleau,

France) New Zealand-born British writer. After moving to England at age 19, she secured her reputation with the story collection Bliss (1920). She reached the height of her powers in the collection The Garden Party (1922). Her delicate stories, which focus on psychological con¬ flicts, are written in a distinctive prose style with poetic overtones that shows the influence of Anton Chek¬ hov. Her last five years were shad¬ owed by tuberculosis, of which she died at age 34.

Mansfield, Michael (Joseph) known as Mike Mansfield (b.

March 16, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 5, 2001, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician who was the longest-serving majority leader (1961— 77) in the U.S. Senate. He worked in Montana copper mines and later taught history at Montana State University. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1943 to 1953 and in the Senate from 1953 to 1977. An outspoken critic of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, he sponsored a 1971 bill calling for a cease-fire and phased withdrawal. He was a per¬ sistent critic of Pres. Richard Nixon, especially during the Watergate scan¬ dal. After retiring, he served as U.S. ambassador to Japan (1977-88).

Mansfield, William Murray, 1st earl of (b. March 2, 1705, Scone, Perthshire, Scot.—d. March 20, 1793, London, Eng.) British jurist. Called to the bar in 1730, he gained a wide reputation in 1737 when he eloquently supported before the House of Commons a merchants’ peti¬ tion to stop Spanish assaults on their ships. As chief justice of the King’s Bench (1756-88), he conducted several scrupulously fair trials of persons accused of treason and seditious libel. He reduced an unwieldy mass of outmoded commercial law to a coherent body of rules, refined the law of contracts, and made major contributions to maritime law. He was a mem¬ ber of the cabinet three times, entrusting the great seal of his office to a committee so that he could retain the chief justiceship and still exert political power. In 1783 he declined cabinet office, preferring to serve as speaker of the House of Lords. Thomas B. Macaulay called him the father of modem Toryism.

Mansi See Siberian peoples

manslaughter See homicide

Manson, Charles (b. Nov. 12, 1934, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. cult leader and mass murderer. From age 9 he spent a great deal of his life in the care of the state, first in juvenile reformatories and later in prison. By 1968, he had become the leader of the “Family,” a communal religious cult in Los Angeles dedicated to studying and implementing his eccen¬ tric religious teachings. In 1969 he sent Family members to a house rented by the actress Sharon Tate and her husband Roman Polanski; there they murdered Tate and five friends, and elsewhere they killed three others. The trials of Manson and four of his followers in 1971 attracted national attention. Their death sentences were commuted to life imprisonment when California abolished the death penalty in 1972. Manson’s crimes were the subject of the best-selling book Helter Skelter (1974), by the prosecutor in the case, Vincent Bugliosi.

manta ray or devil ray or devilfish Any of several genera of warm-water marine rays, constituting the family Mobulidae, that are wider than they are long. Extensions of the pectoral fins project from the front of the head, looking like devils’ horns; these sweep plankton and small fishes into their mouths. The long, whiplike tail may have one or more stinging spines. Mantas swim near the surface by flapping their pectoral fins. The largest species, the powerful but inoffensive Atlantic manta, or giant devil, ray ( Manta birostris ), may grow to over 23 ft (7 m) wide; contrary to old tales, it does not envelop and eat divers.

Mantegna Vman-'tan-yoV Andrea (b. 1431?, near Vicenza, Republic of Venice—d. Sept. 13, 1506, Mantua, March of Mantua) Italian painter. The son of a woodworker, he was adopted by Francesco Squarcione, a tailor-turned-painter; Mantegna was one of several pupils who later sued him for exploitation. At about 17 he established his own workshop and received an important commission for an altarpiece, now lost. His fres¬ coes in Padua’s Eremitani Church (1448-57), with their monumental fig¬ ures and detailed treatment of Classical architecture, show that he had fully mastered perspective and foreshortening and was successfully experimenting with illusionistic effects, best seen in his frescoes of the Gonzaga family (completed 1474) in the Palazzo Ducale’s Camera degli Sposi (Bridal Chamber) in Mantua, which transform the small interior room into an open-air pavilion. He was the first artist in northern Italy to work fully in the Renaissance style. He married a daughter of the Bellini family in 1453 but did not join the Bellini studio. He later became court painter to Ludovico Gonzaga. His humanistic approach to antiquity and his spatial illusionism were to have far-reaching influence.

Mantineia V.man-to-'m-oX or Mantinea Ancient Greek city of Arca¬ dia, situated north of modern Tripolis. At the first Battle of Mantineia in 418 bc, Sparta defeated the coalition of Mantineia, Elis, Argos, and Ath¬ ens. In 362 the Theban army defeated Spartan troops in an encounter nearby. In 207 Philopoemen, the Greek general of the Achaean League,

1188 I mantis ► Manzanar Relocation Center

defeated the Spartans at Mantineia. In the later Roman Empire, Mantineia dwindled to a mere village, and it finally disappeared under Ottoman rule.

mantis or praying mantis Any of more than 1,500 species of the insect suborder Mantodea (order Orthoptera). The long-bodied, slow- moving mantis (or mantid) eats only living insects, using its large fore¬ limbs to capture and hold its struggling prey. The female is likely to eat the male after mating. The European Mantis religiosa and the Chinese mantis ( Tenodera aridifolia sinensis ) have been introduced to North America. The latter grows to 3-8 in. (8-20 cm) long. The name mantis (“diviner”) reflects an ancient Greek belief in its supernatural powers.

mantle That part of the Earth that lies beneath the crust and above the central core. On average, the mantle begins about 22 mi (35 km) below the surface and ends at a depth of about 1,800 mi (2,900 km). Predomi¬ nant in the rock material are olivines, pyroxenes, and the silicate perovs- kite, a dense form of enstatite.

Mantle, Mickey in full Mickey Charles Mantle (b. Oct. 20,1931, Spavinaw, Okla., U.S.—d. Aug. 13, 1995, Dallas, Texas) U.S. baseball player. Mantle joined the New York Yankees in 1951 and became a pow¬ erful switch-hitting outfielder and first baseman. Between 1954 and 1961 “the Mick” led the American League four times in home runs, six times in runs, and once in RBIs, the latter occurring in the year (1956) that he won the triple crown for home runs, RBI, and batting average (.353). In 1961 he hit 54 home runs, finishing second in the home-run race behind his teammate Roger Maris, who broke Babe Ruth’s season record that same year. Mantle had to play with his legs heavily taped for much of his career because of injuries to his ankles and knees. He retired in 1968 with a lifetime total of 536 home runs.

mantra In Hinduism and Buddhism, a sacred utterance (syllable, word, or verse) believed to possess mystical or spiritual power. Mantras may be spoken aloud or uttered in thought, and they may be either repeated or sounded only once. Most have no apparent verbal meaning, but they are thought to have profound significance and to serve as distillations of spiritual wisdom. Repetition of a mantra can induce a trancelike state and can lead the participant to a higher level of spiritual awareness. Widely used mantras include om in Hinduism and om mani padme hum in Tibetan Buddhism.

Manu Vmo-niA In the mythology of India, the first man and the legend¬ ary author of the Manu-smrti. Manu appears in the Vedas as the performer of the first sacrifice. He is also known as the first king, and most rulers of medieval India claimed him as an ancestor. In the story of the great flood, Manu combines the characteristics of Noah and Adam. He built a boat after being warned of the flood by a fish. His boat came to rest on a mountaintop, and as the flood receded Manu poured out an oblation of milk and butter. A year later a woman calling herself the “daughter of Manu” was born from the waters, and these two became the parents of a new human race to replenish the earth.

Manu-smrti Vmo-nii-'smri-teV officially Manava-dharma- shastra Most authoritative of the books of the Hindu law code {Dharma-shastra). It is attributed to the legendary first man and lawgiver, Manu. In its present form it dates from the 1st century bc. It prescribes the dharma of each Hindu, stating the obligations attached to his or her social class and stage of life. Making no distinction between religious and secular law, it deals with cosmogony, sacraments, and other religious top¬ ics as well as with marriage, hospitality, dietary restrictions, the conduct of women, and the law of kings.

Manual of Discipline or Rule of the Community Major docu¬ ment produced by the Essene community of Jews. The manual, written on scrolls found in 1947 in caves at Qumran (see Dead Sea Scrolls), explains the sect’s religious and moral ideals and describes its admission ceremony, mystical doctrines, and organizational and disciplinary statutes.

Manuel \mon-'wel\ I known as Manuel the Fortunate (b. May 31,

1469, Alcochete, Port.—d. December 1521, Lisbon) King of Portugal (1495-1521). He opened trade with India and Brazil, sending Pedro Alva- res Cabral on a voyage to East Asia (1500), and gained riches from Vasco da Gama’s voyage around Africa. Manuel’s claims to the newly discov¬ ered lands were confirmed by the pope and recognized by Spain. In order to marry the daughter of Ferdinand V and Isabella, he agreed to expel Jews and Muslims from Portugal (1496). His reign saw the founding of Por¬ tuguese outposts in India and the Malay Peninsula, and his explorers

reached China in 1513. Manuel also centralized Portuguese administra¬ tion, reformed the courts, and revised the legal code.

Manuel I Comnenus \ , man-yu-ol...kam- , ne-n9s\ (b. Nov. 28, 1118—d. Sept. 24, 1180) Byzantine emperor (1143-80). The son of John II Comnenus, he renewed alliances in the West against the Normans in Sic¬ ily and Antioch. He took Apulia briefly (1155) but was defeated at Brin¬ disi (1156) by a joint force of Germans, Venetians, and Normans, ending Byzantine control in Italy. He reasserted his authority over the Crusader states (1158-59) and extended his influence among the Hungarians and Serbs, adding Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia to the empire in 1167. He launched a campaign against the Seljuq Turks (1176), and his defeat showed the waning of Byzantine power and ended his plan of restoring the Roman Empire.

Manuel II Palaeologus \ , man-yu-3l...,pa-le- , a-l9-g9s\ (b. July 27, 1350—d. July 21, 1425) Byzantine emperor (1391-1425). He was crowned coemperor with his father, John V Palaeologus, in 1373; his brother Andronicus IV seized the throne in 1376, but Manuel and his father regained it with Turkish aid in 1379. They were obliged to pay trib¬ ute to the sultan, who later helped them quash a rebellion by Androni¬ cus’s son (1390). Manuel was forced to live as a vassal at the Turkish court but escaped after his father’s death (1391). A treaty in 1403 kept peace with the Turks until 1421, when Manuel’s son and coemperor John VIII meddled in Turkish affairs. After the Turks besieged Constantinople (1422) and took southern Greece (1423), Manuel signed a humiliating treaty and entered a monastery.

manufacturing Any industry that makes products from raw materials by the use of manual labour or machines and that is usually carried out systematically with a division of labour. In a more limited sense, manu¬ facturing is the fabrication or assembly of components into finished prod¬ ucts on a fairly large scale. Among the most important manufacturing industries are those that produce aircraft, automobiles, chemicals, cloth¬ ing, computers, consumer electronics, electrical equipment, furniture, heavy machinery, refined petroleum products, ships, steel, and tools. See also factory; mass production.

manure Organic material that is used to fertilize land, usually consist¬ ing of the feces and urine of domestic livestock, with or without litter such as straw, hay, or bedding. Some countries also use human excrement (“night soil”). Though livestock manure is less rich in nitrogen, phospho¬ rus, and potash than synthetic fertilizers and therefore must be applied in much greater quantities, it is rich in organic matter, or HUMUS, and thus improves the capacity of the soil to absorb and store water, thereby pre¬ venting erosion. Because manure must be carefully stored and spread in order to derive the most benefit, some farmers decline to expend the nec¬ essary time and effort. Manufactured chemical fertilizers, though more concentrated and efficient, are also more costly and more likely to cause excess runoff and pollution. See also green manure.

Manutius \m3- l nu-shos\, Aldus, the Elder Italian Aldo Manuzio il Vecchio (b. 1449, Bassiano, Papal States—d. Feb. 6, 1515, Venice) Italian printer, the leading figure of his time in printing, publishing, and typography. In 1490 he settled in Venice and gathered around him a group of compositors and Greek scholars. He produced the first printed editions of many Greek and Latin classics and is particularly associated with the production of small, carefully edited pocket-size books printed in inex¬ pensive editions. The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499) of Francesco Colonna, with outstanding woodcuts, was his most famous book. After his death, the Aldine Press, which he founded, was taken over by members of his family, who probably printed 1,000 editions between 1495 and 1595.

Manx cat Breed of domestic cat believed to have come from the Isle of Man. Affectionate, loyal, and courageous, the compact Manx is distin¬ guished by its taillessness and hopping gait. The rump is distinctly higher than the shoulders because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The Manx may be born with a tail, but ideally it should be tailless. The double coat may be any of several colours.

Manzanar \ , man-z9-,nar\ Relocation Center Internment facility for Japanese Americans during World War II. Fear that Japan would invade the western U.S. with the aid of spies living in the U.S. led the government to force Japanese Americans in western states to relocate to one of ten camps, of which Manzanar, in California, was the first to be established and the best known. During its operation, over 11,000 people were confined there. The California centre was named a national historic site in 1992.

Manzikert ► maple family I 1189

Manzikert, Battle of (1071) Battle near the town of Manzikert (present-day Malazgirt, Turk.), in which the Seljuq Turks (see Seuuq dynasty) under Sultan Alp-Arslan defeated the Byzantines under Romanus IV Diogenes. Romanus had assembled a large army to confront the Turks and end their forays into Byzantine-ruled Anatolia. His troops included Turkmen mercenaries who deserted to the enemy the night before the battle; the Turks destroyed the Byzantine army and took Romanus pris¬ oner. The battle was followed by the Seljuq conquest of most of Anatolia.

Manzoni, Alessandro (b. March 7, 1785, Milan, Italy—d. May 22, 1873, Milan) Italian novelist and poet. After spending much of his childhood in religious schools, Man¬ zoni wrote a series of religious poems. Sacred Hymns (1815), and later two historical tragedies influ¬ enced by William Shakespeare, II conte di Carmagnola (1820) and Adelchi (performed 1822). He is best known for the novel The Betrothed,

3 vol. (1827), a masterpiece of world literature and the most famous Ital¬ ian novel of its century, in which, prompted by a patriotic urge to forge a language accessible to a wide read¬ ership, he employed a clear, expres¬ sive prose that became a model for many subsequent Italian writers.

Manzoni’s advocacy of a united Italy made him a hero of the Risorgimento; his death prompted Giuseppe Verdi’s great Requiem.

Manzu Vmand-ztiV Giacomo orig. Giacomo Manzoni (b. Dec. 22, 1908, Bergamo, Italy—d. Jan.

17, 1991, Ardea) Italian sculptor.

Apprenticed at an early age, he learned to work in wood, metal, and stone. In 1950, after making a name for himself with sculptures of more than 50 Roman Catholic cardinals and a series of female nudes, he was commissioned to create sculptural bronze doors for St. Peter's Basilica.

His sober realism and extremely delicate modeling achieved both severity and sensuousness of form.

Mao Dun Vmau-’dunV or Mao Tun orig. Shen Dehong or Shen Yanbing (b. July 4, 1896, Tong- xiang, Zhejiang province, China—d.

March 27, 1981, Beijing) Chinese literary critic, author, and editor. A founder of the League of Left-Wing Writers (1930), he served as minister of culture after the communist gov¬ ernment was established (1949-64).

Many Western critics consider his trilogy of novellas Shi (1930; “Eclipse”) to be his masterpiece. English translations of his works include Spring Silkworms and Other Stories (1956) and the novel Rainbow (1992). He is generally considered China’s greatest novelist of realism.

Mao Shan Vmau-'shanN Sacred mountain in Jiangsu province in China, the focus of Daoist revelations to the visionary Yang Xi (ad 364-370). Yang Xi was visited by a group of perfected immortals ( zhenren ) from the heaven of Shangqing (Supreme Purity), who gave him a new set of scriptures and instructions on the coming apocalypse, during which the good were to take refuge in luminous caverns beneath such sacred mountains as Mao Shan. The Mao Shan revelations incorporated elements of Buddhism into Daoist thought and proposed reforms of Daoism, including rejection of its sexual rites in favour of a spiritualized union with a celestial partner.

Mao Zedong Vmau-dzs-'duqN or Mao Tse-tung (b. Dec. 26, 1893, Shaoshan, Hunan province, China—d. Sept. 9, 1976, Beijing) Chinese

Marxist theorist, soldier, and statesman who led China’s communist revo¬ lution and served as chairman of the People’s Republic of China (1949— 59) and chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP; 1931-76). The son of a peasant, Mao joined the revolutionary army that overthrew the Qing dynasty but, after six months as a soldier, left to acquire more edu¬ cation. At Beijing University he met L Dazhao and Chen Duxiu, founders of the CCP, and in 1921 he committed himself to Marxism. At that time, Marxist thought held that revolution lay in the hands of urban workers, but in 1925 Mao concluded that in China it was the peasantry, not the urban proletariat, that had to be mobilized. He became chairman of a Chi¬ nese Soviet Republic formed in rural Jiangxi province; its Red Army withstood repeated attacks from Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist army but at last undertook the Long March to a more secure position in northwestern China. There Mao became the undisputed head of the CCP. Guerrilla war¬ fare tactics, appeals to the local population’s nationalist sentiments, and Mao’s agrarian policies gained the party military advantages against their Nationalist and Japanese enemies and broad support among the peasantry. Mao’s agrarian Marxism differed from the Soviet model, but, when the communists succeeded in taking power in China in 1949, the Soviet Union agreed to provide the new state with technical assistance. However, Mao’s Great Leap Forward and his criticism of “new bourgeois elements” in the Soviet Union and China alienated the Soviet Union irrevocably; Soviet aid was withdrawn in 1960. Mao followed the failed Great Leap Forward with the Cultural Revolution, also considered to have been a disastrous mistake. After Mao’s death, Deng Xiaoping introduced social and eco¬ nomic reforms that began reversing the policies put in place by Mao. See also Jiang Qing; Liu Shaoqi; Maoism.

Maoism Vmau-.i-zomX Variation of Marxism and Leninism developed by Mao Zedong. It diverged from its antecedents in its agrarian focus: Mao substituted the dormant power of the peasantry (discounted by traditional Marxists) for the urban proletariat that China largely lacked. The Maoist faith in revolutionary enthusiasm and the positive value of the peasants’ lack of sophistication as opposed to technological or intellectual elites fueled the Great Leap Forward of the 1950s and the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and ’70s. The disastrous consequences of both upheavals led Mao’s successors to abandon Maoism as counterproductive to economic growth and social order. Maoism was embraced by insurgent guerrilla groups worldwide; under the Khmer Rouge it became Cambodia’s national ideology.

Maori Vmau-re\ Any member of a Polynesian people of New Zealand. Maori traditional history describes their origins in terms of waves of migration from a mythical land between the 12th and 14th centuries, but archaeologists have dated habitations in New Zealand back to at least ad 800. Their first European contact was with Abel Janszoon Tasman (1642), who did battle with a group of Maori. Later Europeans were initially wel¬ comed, but the arrival of muskets, disease, Western agricultural methods, and missionaries corroded Maori culture and social structure, and con¬ flicts arose. The British assumed formal control of New Zealand in 1840; war over land broke out repeatedly over the next three decades. By 1872 all fighting had ended and great tracts of Maori land had been confis¬ cated. Today about 9% of New Zealanders are classified as Maori; nearly all have some European ancestry. Though largely integrated into modern urban life, many Maori keep alive traditional cultural practices and struggle to retain control of their ancestral lands.

map Graphic representation, drawn to scale and usually on a flat sur¬ face, of features—usually geographic, geologic, or geopolitical—of an area of the Earth or of any celestial body. Globes are maps represented on the surface of a sphere. Cartography is the art and science of making maps and charts. Major types of maps include topographic maps, show¬ ing features of the Earth’s land surface; nautical charts, representing coastal and marine areas; hydrographic charts, which detail ocean depths and currents; and aeronautical charts, which detail surface features and air routes.

Mapam, Lake Chinese Mapam Yumco Vma-.pam-'yum-koV or Ma-fa-mu-ts'o \ma-,fa-'mu-ts6\ conventional Manasarowar V.ma-na-sa-'ro-.warV Lake in the Himalayas, southwestern Tibet, China. Lying nearly 15,000 ft (4,570 m) above sea level, it is generally recognized as the highest body of fresh water in the world. It is prominent in Hindu mythology and is one of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for Hindus.

maple family Family Aceraceae, composed of about 200 species (in the genera Dipteronia in China and Acer across the Northern Hemisphere)

Alessandro Manzoni, oil painting by Francesco Hayez; in the Brera Gallery, Milan.

AUNARI—ART RESOURCE

Portrait of a Lady, bronze sculpture by Giacomo Manzu, 1946; in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK; A. CONGER GOODYEAR FUND

1190 I mapmaking ► Maranon

of ornamental, shade, and timber trees. Maples are important ornamen¬ tals for lawns, along streets, and in parks. They offer a great variety of form, size, and foliage; many display striking autumn colour. The red maple (A. rubrum) is one of the most common trees in its native eastern North America, where it tolerates compacted wet soils and city pollution. Box elder (A. negundo ) grows quickly to 30-50 ft (9-15 m) and resists drought, so early prairie settlers planted many for shade and for wood to make crates, furniture, paper pulp, and charcoal. The watery, sweet sap of the sugar maple (A. saccharum) is boiled down for syrup and sugar; the wood of certain sugar maples is used for furniture.

mapmaking See cartography

Maponos \ma-'po-nos\ or Mac ind Og Vma-kon-'dogV or Oeng- hus Ve-nas, 'oin-gosX In Celtic religion, a god similar to Apollo who is often associated with healing. He appears in Welsh mythology as Mabon, who was carried off from his divine mother when he was three nights old. In Irish mythology he is said to be the son of Dagda and of Boann, the personified sacred river of Irish tradition. He lived in the great Neolithic (and therefore pre-Celtic) passage grave of Newgrange.

Mapplethorpe Vma-pol-.thorpV Robert (b. Nov. 4, 1946, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 9, 1989, Boston, Mass.) U.S. photographer. He attended the Pratt Institute (1963-70). By the mid 1970s he was pursu¬ ing what were to remain his favourite subjects throughout his career: still lifes, flowers, portraits of friends and celebrities, and homoerotic explo¬ rations of the male body. His compositions were generally stark, with his combination of cold studio light and precise focus creating dramatic tonal contrasts. His muscular male models were generally framed against plain backdrops, sometimes engaged in sexual activity or posed with sadomas¬ ochistic props such as leather and chains. His clear, unflinching style challenged viewers to confront this imagery. Moreover, the combination of his choice of subject matter with the photographs’ formal beauty and grounding in art-historical traditions created what many saw as a tension between pornography and art. A posthumous retrospective exhibition of his work in 1990, funded partly by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), stirred a debate about government subsidies of “obscene” art and provoked Congress to enact restrictions on future NEA grants.

mappo Vmap-.poN In Japanese Buddhism, the age in which the Buddha’s law will degenerate. The period following the death of the Buddha is divided into three ages: the age of the true law, the age of the copied law, and the age of the latter law, or the degeneration of the law. A new period, in which true faith will again flower, will then be ushered in by the bodhi- sattva Maitreya (Japanese Miroku). Japanese Buddhists calculate that the age of mappo began in ad 1052. Since it is expected to continue for 10,000 years, the current era of human history continues to be the age of mappo.

Mapuche \ma-'pu-che\ Most numerous group of Araucanian-speaking South American Indians (see Araucanian), who live in the central valley of Chile. They are noted for their 350-year struggle against Spanish and Chilean domination. In the 16th—18th centuries they learned to use horses in battle and united over great distances to fight Spanish incursions. After Chile gained independence in the 19th century, the government settled them on reservations. In the 1980s the reservation land was transferred to individuals, but their rights have become endangered by debt accrued to support their traditional, non-intensive agriculture.

Maputo \ma-'pu-to\ formerly (until 1976) Lourenco Marques \l6-'ra n -su-'mar-kish\ Port city (pop., 1997: 989,386), capital of Mozam¬ bique. It lies on the northern bank of Espfrito Santo Estuary of Delagoa Bay, an inlet of the Indian Ocean. It derived its former name from the Portuguese trader who first explored the region in 1544. The town devel¬ oped around a Portuguese fortress completed in 1787. Created a city town in 1887, it superseded Mozambique as the capital of Portuguese East Africa in 1907. Since the nation’s independence in 1975, the collapse of tourism and reduced access to foreign trade have damaged the city’s economy.

maqam \ma-'kam\ Spiritual stage that serves as a milestone on the path followed by Muslim mystics (Sufis) as they strive to reach the vision of and union with God. The Sufi progresses through his own spiritual efforts and through the guidance of sheikhs. In each maqam the Sufi strives to purify himself of all worldly inclinations and prepare himself to attain an ever higher spiritual level. Most Sufis identify seven major maqams: repentance, fear of the Lord, renunciation, poverty, patience, trust, and satisfaction. See also Sufism.

Maqtul, al- See al-SuHRAWARDl

Mar del Plata Coastal city (pop., 1999 est.: 579,483), east-central Argentina. It was the site of a Spanish mission (1746-51). In 1856 Por¬ tuguese explorer Jose Coelho Mierelles founded the fishing village La Peregrina. Mar del Plata was established in 1874 and promoted as a sea¬ side resort; it became a city in 1907. It is famous for its luxurious casino. In addition to tourism, its economy is based on construction, textiles, and commercial fishing and canning. It is the seat of the National University of Mar del Plata.

Mar-pa (b. 1012, Lhobrag, Tibet—d. 1096, Tibet) Tibetan religious leader. According to tradition, he was born to wealthy parents, and to curb his violent nature he was sent to a Tibetan monastery to study Buddhism. He later spent three periods studying under the yogi Naropa in India, returning to Tibet during the intervals and gathering disciples. A major figure in the revival of Buddhism in Tibet, he is known for his transla¬ tions of Indian Vajrayana Buddhist texts and of mystical songs of the Indian Tantric tradition.

Mara Buddhist Lord of the Senses, who repeatedly tempted the Buddha Gautama. When Gautama seated himself under the bodhi tree to await enlightenment, the evil Mara appeared in the guise of a messenger claim¬ ing that a rival had usurped the family throne. After sending a storm of rain, rocks, ashes, and darkness to frighten away the gods who had gath¬ ered, he challenged Gautama’s right to sit beneath the tree and sent forth his three daughters, Trsna, Rati, and Raga (thirst, desire, and delight), to seduce Gautama, but to no avail. After the Buddha had achieved enlight¬ enment, Mara pressed him to abandon any attempt to preach, but the gods successfully persuaded him to preach the law.

marabou Vmar-o-.biA African stork ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus). Stand¬ ing 5 ft (1.5 m) tall with a wingspread of 8.5 ft (2.6 m), the marabou is the largest of all storks. Mainly gray and white, it has a bald pinkish face and neck; a reddish, inflatable throat pouch; and a straight, heavy bill. Marabous eat carrion, often feeding with vultures, which they dominate.

Maracaibo X.ma-ra-'kI-boX City (pop., 2000 est.: 1,764,038), north¬ western Venezuela. Located on the channel connecting Lake Maracaibo with the Gulf of Venezuela, it is Venezuela’s second largest city. Founded in 1571 as Nueva Zamora, it became a centre for inland trade after Gibral¬ tar, at the head of the lake, was destroyed in 1669. It changed hands sev¬ eral times during Venezuela’s struggle for independence from Spain. Within a decade of the discovery of oil in 1917, it became the oil metropo¬ lis of Venezuela and South America.

Maracaibo, Lake Inlet of the Caribbean Sea, northwestern Venezuela. The largest natural lake in South America, it occupies an area of 5,130 sq mi (13,280 sq km), extending southward for 130 mi (210 km) from the Gulf of Venezuela and reaching a width of 75 mi (121 km). Many rivers flow into the lake, notably the Catatumbo River. It is in one of the world’s richest oil-producing regions, which supplies about two-thirds of Venezu¬ ela’s total petroleum output. Its oil fields are located along the eastern shore, extending 20 mi (32 km) into the lake.

Maradona, Diego Armando (b. Oct. 30, 1960, Villa Fiorito, near Buenos Aires, Arg.) Argentine football (soccer) player. A midfielder renowned for his ability to create scoring chances for himself and others, he led club teams to championships in Argentina, Italy, and Spain. He starred for the Argentine national team that won the 1986 World Cup. His perfor¬ mance included two memorable goals against England, one scored with his hand (the referee mistakenly thought the ball struck his head) and now remembered as the “Hand of God,” and another that saw him dribble through a pack of defenders. He was twice suspended for use of banned substances. An Internet poll conducted by the Federation Internationale de Football Association named Maradona the top player of the 20th century.

Mara jo \,ma-ra-'zho\ Island in the Amazon River delta, Brazil. The world’s largest fluvial island, it is 183 mi (295 km) long and 124 mi (200 km) wide, with an area of about 15,500 sq mi (40,100 sq km). The main flow of the Amazon passes north of Marajo, but numerous narrow chan¬ nels direct part of its water into the ParA River, an estuary that separates the island from the mainland to the south. Archaeological remains in the eastern savanna are similar to those of pre-Columbian Andean civilization.

Maranon \,ma-ra-'nyon\ River River, central Peru. Rising in the Andes Mountains, it is part of the headwaters of the Amazon River. It flows north¬ west at elevations of about 12,000 ft (3,650 m) and descends through

Marat ► Marcel I 1191

jungles in unnavigable rapids and falls; emerging from the most spectacu¬ lar of these rapids, the Pongo de Manseriche, it is only 575 ft (175 m) above sea level. For the rest of its 879-mi (1,415-km) course, it meanders eastward, receiving the Huallaga River and then joining the Ucayau River to form the Amazon.

Marat \ma-'ra\, Jean-Paul (b. May 24, 1743, Boudry, near Neucha- tel, Switz.—d. July 13, 1793, Paris,

France) French politician and a leader of the radical Montagnard faction in the French Revolution. He was a well-known doctor in London in the 1770s. Returning to France in 1777, he was appointed physician at the court of Louis XVI’ s brother, the count d’Artois (later Charles X).

Marat wrote scientific publications as well as political pamphlets. From 1789, as editor of the newspaper L’Ami du Peuple, he became an influential voice for radical measures against the aristocrats. He criticized moderate revolutionary leaders and warned against the emigre nobility, then advocated the execution of counterrevolutionaries. One of the most influential members of the National Convention (1792), he was actively supported by Parisians in street demonstrations. In April 1793 the Girondins brought him before a Revolutionary tribunal, but he was acquitted. In July a young Girondin supporter, Charlotte Corday, gained admittance to his room and stabbed him to death in his bath, making him a martyr to the people’s cause.

Maratha \ma-r3-'ta\ confederacy Maratha alliance formed in the 18th century in western India after Shivaji’s Maratha kingdom collapsed under Mughal pressure. Under Shivaji’s grandson, power fell to peshwas (chief ministers) from leading Maratha families, who ruled effectively in the early 18th century but quarreled as the century waned. The confed¬ eracy fell to the British in 1818.

Maratha Wars Three conflicts between the British and the Maratha confederacy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. At the time, the con¬ federacy controlled large portions of the Deccan and of the western coast of the Indian peninsula. The British lost the first conflict (1775-82), in which they supported one contender’s bid for the office of peshxvci (chief minister). They won the second (1803-05), defeating members of the confederacy who challenged their restoration of an ousted peshwa. The third war (1817-18) started after the British invaded Maratha territory in pursuit of robber bands. When Maratha forces rose against the British, they were defeated, Maratha territory was annexed, and British supremacy in India became complete.

marathon Long-distance footrace run on an open course of 26 miles 385 yards (42.2 km). First held at the revived Olympic Games in 1896, it commemorates the legendary feat of a Greek soldier who is said to have run from Marathon to Athens in 490 bc, a distance of about 25 mi (40 km), to report the Greek victory at the Battle of Marathon, after which he dropped dead. Marathons today are usually open events for both men and women, often run by thousands of participants, including the vener¬ able Boston Marathon (established 1897). The women’s marathon became an Olympic event in 1984.

Marathon, Battle of (490 bc) Decisive battle on the plain of Mara¬ thon outside Athens in the Persian Wars. Darius I led his enormous army against a much smaller Athenian force led by Miltiades. The Athenians attacked with great speed, while the Persian cavalry was absent, devas¬ tating the Persian line and resulting in Darius’s departure from Greece. The victory was overwhelming: 6,400 Persians but only 192 Athenians died. It is said that a messenger ran about 25 mi (40 km) back to Athens, where he announced the victory before dying of exhaustion (see mara¬ thon). In another version, an Athenian runner was sent to Sparta before the battle to ask for help, running 150 mi (240 km) in two days; Sparta refused, so Athens fought with help only from Plataea.

Maravi confederacy Vma-ro-veX Centralized system of government established in southern Africa c. 1480. It was created by members of related ethnolinguistic groups who had migrated from the north into what

is now central and southern Malawi. Its seat was southwest of Lake Malawi, and at its peak in the 17th century it ruled an area stretching from the Zambezi River to the Mozambique coast. Its leaders traded with the Portuguese and Arabs in ivory, slaves, and iron. By 1720 it split into sev¬ eral autonomous factions.

marble Granular limestone or dolomite that has recrystallized under the influence of heat, pressure, and aqueous solutions. The main mineral in marble is calcite. Commercially, “marble” includes all decorative calcium- rich rocks that can be polished, as well as some serpentines. Marbles are used principally for buildings and monuments, interior decoration, statu¬ ary, tabletops, and novelties. Colour and appearance are their most impor¬ tant qualities. Statuary marble, the most valuable variety, must be pure white and of uniform grain size.

Marblehead Town (pop., 2000: 20,377), northeastern Massachusetts, U.S. Its harbour is sheltered by Marblehead Neck, a promontory about 1.5 mi (2.5 km) long. Settled in 1629 as a part of Salem, it was incorporated as a town in 1649 and developed as a fishing and shipbuilding centre. The port declined after the War of 1 812. It is now a resort centre.

Marbury v. Madison (1803) First decision of the Supreme Court of the United States to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional, thus estab¬ lishing the doctrine of judicial review. In 1801 newly elected Pres. Thomas Jefferson ordered Secretary of State James Madison to withhold from Wil¬ liam Marbury the commission of his appointment by former Pres. John Adams as justice of the peace in the District of Columbia. Marbury then requested that the Supreme Court compel Madison to deliver his com¬ mission. In denying his request, the court held that it lacked jurisdiction because the section of the Judiciary Act passed by Congress in 1789 that authorized the Court to issue such a writ was unconstitutional and thus invalid. Chief Justice John Marshall, writing for the Court, declared that the Constitution must always take precedence in any conflict between it and a law passed by Congress.

Marc, Franz (b. Feb. 8, 1880, Munich, Ger.—killed in action March 4, 1916, near Verdun, France) German painter. His early works were aca¬ demic, but exposure to Impressionism and Jugendstil lightened his style, and in 1911, with Vasily Kandinsky and other abstract painters, he became a founding member of the Blaue Reiter group. He believed that spiritual essence is best revealed through abstraction and was passionately inter¬ ested in the art of “primitive” peoples, children, and the mentally ill. His own work consisted primarily of animal studies, since he believed non¬ human forms of life to be the most expressive manifestation of the vital force of nature.

marcasite \'mar-k3-,slt\ Iron sulfide mineral that forms pale bronze- yellow crystals; the name cockscomb marcasite refers to the shape of a common form of its crystals. Marcasite has the same chemical formula as pyrite (FeS 2 ) but a different internal (atomic) structure. It is less stable than pyrite, being easily decomposed, and is much less common.

Marceau \mar-'s6\ A Marcel (b. March 22, 1923, Strasbourg, France) French mime. After serving in World War II, he studied with the panto- mimist Etienne Decroux and had his first success in the role of Arlequin in Baptiste. He formed a mime troupe (1948-64) and earned world¬ wide acclaim in the 1950s with his production of the “mimodrama” of Nikolay Gogol’s Overcoat. In 1978 he founded a school of mimodrama in Paris. He is noted for his eloquent, deceptively simple portrayals, including his celebrated white-faced character Bip, reminiscent of Pierrot and of Charlie Chaplin’s tramp. See

also MIME AND PANTOMIME.

Marcel, Gabriel (-Honore) (b.

Dec. 7, 1889, Paris, France—d. Oct.

8, 1973, Paris) French philosopher, dramatist, and critic. His philosophi¬ cal works explore aspects of human existence (e.g., trust, fidelity, hope, and despair) which had traditionally been dismissed as unamenable to philosophical consideration. His use

Jean-Paul Marat, detail of a portrait by Joseph Boze, 1793; in the Museum of the History of Paris.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW VORK

1192 I Marcellus ► Marcos

of phenomenology was independent of the work of Edmund Husserl, con¬ sidered the founder of the phenomenological movement. Marcel was the first French proponent of existentialism.

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius (b. c. 268—d. 208 bc, near Venusia, Apulia) Roman general. Elected consul in 222, he fought in Gaul and won the spolia opima (“spoils of honour”), awarded for killing an enemy chief in single combat, for the third and last time in Roman history. He was consul again in 215 and 214. Serving in Sicily (214-211) in the Second Punic War, he took Syracuse after a two-year siege; his troops sacked the city and carried its art treasures to Rome. He served again as consul in 210 and 208. While fighting Hannibal near Venusia, he was caught in an ambush and killed.

Marcellus \mar-'se-bs\, Marcus Claudius (b. 42—d. 23 bc, Baiae, Campania [Italy]) Roman leader. Nephew of Augustus (he was the son of Augustus’s sister Octavia), Marcellus was Augustus’s presumed heir. He married Augustus’s daughter Julia in 25 bc and later that year served with Augustus in Spain. Great hopes had rested with him, and his unexpected death led to problems of succession.

march Musical form having an even metre with strongly accented beats, originally intended to facilitate military marching. Development of the European march may have been stimulated by the Ottoman invasions of the 14th-16th centuries. Marches were not notated until the late 16th cen¬ tury; until then, time was generally kept by percussion alone, often with improvised fife embellishment. With the extensive development of brass instruments, especially in the 19th century, marches became widely popu¬ lar and were often elaborately orchestrated. Composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Gustav Mahler wrote marches, often incorporating them into their operas, sonatas, or symphonies. The later popularity of John Philip Sousa’s band marches was unmatched.

March, Frederic orig. Frederick Ernest McIntyre Bickel (b.

Aug. 31, 1897, Racine, Wis., U.S.—d. April 14, 1975, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. actor. He began acting on Broadway, and his parody of John Bar¬ rymore in a touring production of The Royal Family earned him a five- year contract with Paramount Pictures; he reprised the role in the retitled screen adaptation, The Royal Family of Broadway (1930). He subse¬ quently appeared in more than 65 films, including Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1932, Academy Award), A Star Is Born (1937), The Best Years of Our Lives (1946, Academy Award), Death of a Salesman (1951), and Inherit the Wind (1960). He starred on the stage, often with his wife, Florence Eldridge, in plays such as The Skin of Our Teeth (1942) and Long Day’s Journey into Night (1956, Tony Award). A versatile stage and film actor, his cerebral approach occasionally resulted in stolid, emotionally uncon¬ vincing performances, but it more often produced compelling, complex characterizations.

March Laws Reform measures enacted by the Hungarian Diet in 1848 (see Revolutions of 1848) that sought to create a modem national Mag¬ yar state. The program, presented to the Diet by Kossuth Lajos, provided for internal Hungarian control of its own national guard, budget, and for¬ eign policy. The laws were constitutionally confirmed by Emperor Ferdi¬ nand I in April 1848. Austria denied the validity of the laws after the revolution was defeated (1849), but Hungary continued to insist on their legality. The Austrians reimposed their domination of Hungary until, under the Compromise of 1 867, Hungary received full internal autonomy.

March on Rome See March on Rome

Marchand \mar-'sha n \, Jean (b. Dec. 20, 1918, Champlain, Que., Can.—d. Aug. 28, 1988, Saint-Augustin, Que.) Canadian politician. After graduating from Laval University, he became a prominent union leader in Quebec. From 1961 to 1965 he was president of the Confederation of National Trade Unions. He was elected to the Canadian House of Com¬ mons in 1965 and served in the cabinet of Lester Pearson until 1968. From 1968 to 1976 he held cabinet posts under Pierre Trudeau. Elected to the Canadian Senate in 1976, he served as speaker from 1980 to 1983.

Marche Ymarsh\ Historic region, central France. Once part of Limousin, it was made a separate frontier countship (march) in the 10th century. During the 12th and 13th centuries it was divided into western and east¬ ern halves. It was held by the Bourbons (1342-1435) and by the Arma- gnacs (1435-77). Confiscated by Francis I in 1527, it was granted to the widows of French kings (1574-1643). It was a province of France until the French Revolution.

Marche Vmar-ka\ Region (pop., 2001 prelim.: 1,463,868), central Italy. It covers an area of 3,743 sq mi (9,693 sq km) and is situated between the Adriatic Sea and the region of Umbria and crossed by the Apennines; its only level land is along its river valleys and on the Adriatic shore near Ancona, its capital. Originally inhabited by Gauls and Picenes, it came under Roman rule by ad 292. During the early Middle Ages the southern part was ruled by the Lombards and the northern part by the Byzantines. Conflicts arose in 12th and 13th centuries with powerful feudal families and the attempt of the popes to reestablish their temporal authority; this culminated in 1631, when the duchy of Urbino was incorporated into the Papal States. Marche joined the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. An agricultural area, it has some industrial development.

Marciano \,mar-she-'a-no. Rocky orig. Rocco Francis Marche- giano (b. Sept. 1, 1923, Brockton, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 31, 1969, near Newton, la.) U.S. boxer and world heavyweight champion. Marciano began boxing in the army in World War II. An unscientific but hard- punching and exceptionally durable fighter, he won the championship title in 1952 by defeating Jersey Joe Walcott and relinquished it upon retiring in 1956. He was undefeated in 49 professional fights, scoring 43 knock¬ outs.

Marco Polo See Marco Polo

Marco Polo Bridge Incident Conflict in 1937 between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing. The incident was a culmination of the growing tensions between the two sides— increasing Japanese aggression and Chinese reaction against it—after Japan had occupied northeastern China and established its puppet state of Manchukuo in 1931. The skirmish expanded into a general war between Japan and China.

Marconi, Guglielmo (b. April 25, 1874, Bologna, Italy—d. July 20, 1937, Rome) Italian physicist and inventor. He began experimenting with radio waves in 1894. In 1896 he went to England, where he devel¬ oped a successful system of radio telegraphy. His work on the devel¬ opment of shortwave wireless com¬ munication constitutes the basis of nearly all modern radio broadcast¬ ing. His improved aerials greatly extended the range of radio signal¬ ing. In 1899 he established commu¬ nication across the English Channel.

In 1900 he established the American Marconi Co. In 1901 he sent signals across the Atlantic for the first time.

He acquired numerous patents, though probably his most famous one. No. 7777, for an apparatus that enabled several stations to operate on different wavelengths without interference, was later overturned.

Marconi shared the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics with K. Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918). He was made a marquis and was nominated to the Italian Senate (1929), and he was elected president of the Royal Italian Academy (1930).

Marcos, Ferdinand (Edralin) (b. Sept. 11, 1917, Sarrat, Phil.—d. Sept. 28, 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.) Philippine head of state (1966— 86). The son of a politician, he practiced as a trial lawyer before serving under Manuel Roxas, the first president of the independent Philippines. He was himself elected president in 1966. In his first term he made progress in agriculture, industry, and education, but in 1972 he imposed martial law, and his later years in power were noted for rampant government cor¬ ruption, economic stagnation, political repression, and the steady growth of a communist insurgency. Following public outcry over the assassina¬ tion of the opposition leader Benigno Aquino (1932-83) and Marcos’s apparently fraudulent electoral victory over Aquino’s widow, Corazon Aquino, Marcos was forced into exile in Hawaii, U.S. There he and his wife, Imelda, were indicted on racketeering charges related to embezzling billions of dollars from the Philippine economy. After his death she returned to the Philippines, where she was tried and convicted of corrup¬ tion; the ruling was later overturned.

Guglielmo Marconi, c. 1908.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Marcus ► Margaret of Austria I 1193

Marcus, Rudolph A. (b. July 21, 1923, Montreal, Que., Can.) Canadian-born U.S. chemist. Educated at McGill University, he worked at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (from 1951), the University of Illinois (from 1964), and the California Institute of Technology (from 1978). He studied electron transfer in redox reactions in the 1950s and ’60s, finding that subtle changes in the molecular structures of the reac¬ tants and the solvent molecules around them influence the ability of elec¬ trons to move between the molecules. He also discovered the parabolic relationship between the driving force of an electron-transfer reaction and the reaction’s rate. His work, which has shed light on fundamental phe¬ nomena such as photosynthesis, cell metabolism, and simple corrosion, won him a 1992 Nobel Prize.

Marcus Aurelius V.mar-kos-o-'rel-yosX in full Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augus¬ tus orig. Marcus Annius Verus

(b. April 26, ad 121, Rome—d.

March 17, 180, Vindobona [Vienna] or Sirmium, Pannonia) Roman emperor (161-180). He was born into a wealthy and prominent family.

Hadrian arranged that Marcus and Lucius Verus be adopted by the des¬ ignated future emperor Antoninus Pius, who dutifully groomed Marcus as his heir. On his accession, Marcus nevertheless shared power with his adoptive brother as coemperor, though he himself remained the more dominant. His reign was marked by numerous military crises, all the major frontiers being threat¬ ened by invasion. Struggles against the Parthians (162-166) were suc¬ cessful, but returning troops brought a devastating plague to Rome. With a concurrent German invasion,

Roman morale declined; the Ger¬ mans were repulsed, but Verus died during the campaign (169). Marcus made his son Commodus coemperor in 177. Though a man of gentle character and wide learning, Marcus opposed Christianity and supported persecution of its adherents. His Meditations on Stoicism, considered one of the great books of all times, gives a full picture of his religious and moral values. His reign is often thought to mark the Golden Age of Rome.

Marcuse \mar-'ku-z3\, Herbert (b. July 19, 1898, Berlin—d. July 29, 1979, Stamberg, Ger.) German-U.S. political philosopher. A member of the Frankfurt school, he fled Germany after the Nazi seizure of power in 1933. After working in U.S. intelligence in World War II, he taught at several universities, principally Brandeis University (1954-65) and the University of California at San Diego (1965-76). In his best known and most influential work, One-Dimensional Man (1964), Marcuse argued that society under advanced capitalism is unfree and repressive and that mod¬ ern man has become intellectually and spiritually complacent through his psychological dependence on the blandishments of consumer society, a phenomenon he termed “repressive desublimation.” He was also hostile to the Soviet system. His works were popular among student leftists, especially after the 1968 student rebellions at Columbia University and the Sorbonne. His other writings include Eros and Civilization (1955) and Counterrevolution and Revolt (1972).

Marcy, William L(earned) (b. Dec. 12, 1786, Southbridge, Mass., U.S.—d. July 4, 1857, Ballston Spa, N.Y.) U.S. politician. From 1823 to 1829 he was comptroller of New York state and a leading member of the “Albany Regency,” a group of powerful state Democrats. He was a jus¬ tice of the state supreme court from 1829 to 1831. In the U.S. Senate (1831-33), he championed the spoils system, remarking that “To the vic¬ tor belong the spoils of the enemy.” He served as governor of New York (1833-39), as U.S. secretary of war (1845-49), and as U.S. secretary of state (1853-57).

Mardi Gras \'mar-de-,gra\ (French: “Fat Tuesday”) Carnival celebrated on or culminating on Shrove Tuesday, the day before Ash Wednesday, the start of Lent. Traditionally, households consumed all the remaining foods that would be forbidden during Lent (e.g., eggs) on that day. It is a one-

day event in France, but in the U.S. it lasts several days in New Orleans, where it is marked by parades, street celebrations, and extravagant cos¬ tumes.

Marduk \'mar-,duk\ or Bel In Mesopotamian religion, the chief god of the city of Babylon and the national god of Babylonia. He began as a god of thunderstorms, and according to legend he became lord of all the gods after conquering the monster of primeval chaos, Tiamat. Marduk’ s star was the planet Jupiter, and his sacred animals were horses, dogs, and a dragon with a forked tongue, representations of which adorned Babylon’s walls.

mare Ymar-a\ Any flat, low, dark plain on the Moon. Maria are huge impact basins containing lava flows marked by ridges, depressions (gra- ben), and faults; though mare means “sea” in Latin, they lack water. The best-known is probably Mare Tranquillitatis (“Sea of Tranquillity”), the site of the Apollo 11 manned Moon landing. Most of the approximately 20 major maria are on the side of the Moon that always faces Earth; they are its largest surface features and can be seen from Earth with the unaided eye. The dark features of the “man in the moon” are maria.

Mare, Walter De la See Walter De la Mare

Marengo \m9-'rei]-go\, Battle of (June 14, 1800) Narrow victory for Napoleon against Austria in the Napoleonic Wars, fought on the Marengo Plain in northern Italy. The initial French force was overpowered, but when the Austrian commander gave up command to a subordinate in the belief that victory was secured, French reinforcements forced the Austri¬ ans into retreat. The victory resulted in the French occupation of Lom¬ bardy and secured Napoleon’s military and civilian authority in Paris.

Marenzio \ma-'rents-yo\, Luca (b. 1553, Coccaglio, near Brescia, Republic of Venice—d. Aug. 22, 1599, Rome) Italian composer. He was probably trained as a choirboy in Brescia, and he was in service with Car¬ dinal Luigi d’Este in Rome from 1578 to 1586. The cardinal’s patronage enabled the publication in the 1580s of the first 10 of his 25 books of madrigals, the works for which he is best known and whose style became influential in Italy and England. His later madrigals, more serious in tone, use dissonance and chromaticism to reflect their texts, and they are some¬ times linked into cycles. He also composed some 75 sacred motets.

Marfan syndrome Rare hereditary disorder of connective tissue. Affected persons are tall, with long, thin limbs and spiderlike fingers (arachnodactyly). The lens of the eye is dislocated, and many have glau¬ coma or detached retina. Heart muscle abnormalities and various malfunc¬ tions and malformations occur; rupture of the aorta is the most common cause of death. Severity varies; affected individuals may die young or live essentially normal lives. The underlying abnormality cannot be cured, but some of the defects can be surgically corrected.

Margaret of Angouleme \a n -gu-'lem\ or Margaret of Navarra French Marguerite d'Angouleme (b. April 11, 1492, Angouleme, France—d. Dec. 21, 1549, Odos-Bigorre) Queen consort of Henry II of Navarra and an outstanding figure of the French Renaissance. She was the daughter of the count d’Angouleme. When her brother Fran¬ cis I acceded to the crown in 1515, she became highly influential in his court. After her first husband died, she married Henry in 1525. She was noted as a patron of humanists and reformers and of such writers as Francois Rabelais. She was a writer and poet herself; her most important work was the Heptameron, 72 tales modeled on Boccaccio’s Decameron and published posthumously in 1558-59.

Margaret of Antioch, Saint or Saint Marina (fl. 3rd or 4th cen¬ tury, Antioch, Syria; Eastern feast day July 13; Western feast day July 20) Early Christian martyr. Tradition held that she was a virgin during the reign of Diocletian. When she refused to marry the Roman prefect of Antioch, she was tortured and beheaded. Her designation as patron saint of expectant mothers (especially those in difficult labour) was based on the story that during her trials she was swallowed by Satan in the form of a dragon and later disgorged unharmed. Widely venerated in the Middle Ages, she is now thought to have been fictitious.

Margaret of Austria (b. Jan. 10, 1480, Brussels—d. Dec. 1, 1530, Mechelen, Spanish Netherlands) Habsburg ruler who was regent of the Netherlands (1507-15, 1519-30) for her nephew, the future emperor Charles V. In 1497 she married the infante John, heir to the Spanish king¬ doms, who died a few months later. In 1501 she married Philibert II, duke of Savoy, who died in 1504. Appointed regent by her father, Emperor Maximilian I, she pursued a pro-English foreign policy. In the 1520s she

Marcus Aurelius, bas-relief depicting his triumphal entry into Rome in a quadriga; in the Palazzo dei Conser¬ vator!, Rome.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

1194 I Margaret of Parma ► Maria Theresa

extended the Habsburg dominion in the northeastern Netherlands and negotiated the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), called the “Ladies’ Peace,” with Louise of Savoy (1494-1547), regent for Francis I.

Margaret of Parma (b. 1522,

Oudenaarde, Spanish Nether¬ lands—d. Jan. 18, 1586, Ortona,

Kingdom of Naples) Duchess of Parma, Habsburg regent, and governor-general of the Netherlands (1559-67). The illegitimate daughter of Emperor Charles V, she was mar¬ ried first (1536) to Alessandro de’

Medici, who was murdered in 1537, and then (1538) to Ottavio Famese, duke of Parma. Appointed to govern the Netherlands by her half brother,

Philip II of Spain, Margaret tried to appease the nobility with more mod¬ erate treatment of Protestants, but she brought in an army in 1567 after Calvinist extremists attacked Catholic churches. Philip then sent the duke of Alba, who assembled a Spanish army and enforced stern measures against dissident Protestants, precipitating open revolt. Margaret resigned when Alba assumed power.

Margaret of Scotland, Saint (b. c. 1045, probably Hungary—d. Nov. 16, 1093, Edinburgh; canonized 1250; feast day November 16, Scot¬ tish feast day June 16) Patron saint of Scotland. Sister of Edgar the Aethe- ling, she married Malcolm III Canmore, and three of their sons succeeded to Scotland’s throne. She founded abbeys, worked for justice, improved conditions for the poor, and persuaded Malcolm to initiate a series of ecclesiastical reforms that transformed Scotland’s religious and cultural life.

Margaret of Valois \val-'wa\ or Margaret of France French Marguerite known as Queen Margot \mar-'go\ (b. May 14, 1553, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France—d. March 27, 1615, Paris) Queen con¬ sort of Navarra who played a secondary part in the Wars of Religion (1562-98). The daughter of Henry II of France, her relations with her brothers Charles IX and the future Henry III were strained, and she had an early affair with Henri, duke de Guise, leader of the extremist Catholic party. She was married in 1572 to the Protestant king of Navarra, the future Henry IV of France, to seal the peace between Catholics and Prot¬ estants, but days later the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day began. Aware of her involvement in conspiracies, Henry III banished her to the castle at Usson in 1586. She granted her husband an annulment in 1600 and lived out her life in Paris. She was known for her beauty, learning, and licentious life; her Memoires provide a vivid picture of France dur¬ ing her lifetime.

Margaret Tudor (b. Nov. 29, 1489, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 18, 1541, Methven, Perth, Scot.) Queen consort of King James IV of Scotland (1503- 13). The daughter of King Henry VII of England, she was married to James to improve relations between England and Scotland. After her husband’s death (1513), she became regent for her son, James V (1512-1542). When she married the pro-English earl of Angus (1514), she was forced to give up the regency, but she played a key role in the conflict between the pro- French and pro-English factions in Scotland, shifting her allegiances to suit her financial interests. She obtained an annulment from Angus (1527) to marry Henry Stewart, Baron Methven, who became James’s chief adviser.