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1552 I Progressive Conservative Party of Canada ► proletariat

as COBOL, FORTRAN, Pascal, and C, are known as procedural languages because they use a sequence of commands to specify how the machine is to solve a problem. Others, such as LISP, are functional, in that program¬ ming is done by invoking procedures (sections of code executed within a program). Languages that support object-oriented programming take the data to be manipulated as their point of departure. Programming languages can also be classified as high-level or low-level. Low-level languages address the computer in a way that it can understand directly, but they are very far from human language. High-level languages deal in concepts that humans devise and can understand, but they must be translated by means of a compiler into language the computer understands.

Progressive Conservative Party of Canada Former Canadian political party. It was formed as the Liberal-Conservative Party in 1854 from a union of conservative and moderate-liberal political factions; except for a period during and after World War I, the party kept this name until 1942, when it adopted the name Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. Its first leader was John Macdonald. The party led the govern¬ ment from 1854 to 1873 and again from 1878 to 1896. It regained power in coalition with the Quebec nationalists in 1911 but went down to severe defeat in 1921. From then until 1957 the party held power only twice, briefly in 1926 and from 1930 to 1935. The party held power from 1958 to 1963 under John G. Diefenbaker, from 1979 to 1980 under Joe Clark, and from 1984 to 1989 under Brian Mulroney. In 1993 it was reduced to only two seats in the Canadian House of Commons. In 2003 the Progres¬ sive Conservative Party merged with the Canadian Alliance to form the Conservative Party of Canada. The party favoured reducing government intervention in both the economy and social affairs; strongly federalist, it also was less accommodating than other parties to Quebec separatism.

progressive education Movement that took form in Europe and North America during the late 19th century as a reaction to the alleged narrowness and formalism of traditional education. A main objective was to educate the “whole child”—that is, to attend to physical and emotional as well as intellectual growth. Creative and manual arts gained impor¬ tance in the curriculum, and children were encouraged toward experi¬ mentation and independent thinking. Progressive educational ideas and practices were most powerfully advanced in the U.S. by John Dewey. See also SuMMERHILL SCHOOL.

Progressive Party U.S. independent political party. The first Progres¬ sive Party, known as the Bull Moose Party, was organized in 1911. The second was assembled in 1924; it nominated as its presidential candidate Robert La Follette, who received 17% of the national vote on a platform calling for a “housecleaning” of executive departments, public control of natural resources, public ownership of the railways, and tax reduction. The party dissolved upon La Follette’s death in 1925. The third Progres¬ sive Party, founded in 1947 by Henry Wallace, differed from the previous groups in its focus on foreign affairs; it favoured a conciliatory policy toward the Soviet Union. Though Wallace received more than one mil¬ lion votes in the 1948 election, the party was never again influential.

progressive tax Tax levied at a rate that increases as the quantity subject to taxation increases. Designed to collect a greater proportion of tax revenue from wealthy people, progressive taxes reflect the view that those who are able to pay more should carry a heavier share of the tax burden. Progressive income taxes may provide for exemption from tax liability for incomes under a specified amount, or they may establish pro¬ gressively greater rates for larger and larger incomes. The presence of deductions can also make a tax progressive. Progressive taxes are a sta¬ bilizing force in periods of inflation or recession because the amount of tax revenue changes more than proportionately with an increase or decrease in income. For example, in an inflationary economy, as prices and incomes rise, a greater percentage of taxpayers’ income goes toward taxes. Government revenues increase, and the government has more lever¬ age over the economy. A side effect of this system is that lower-income taxpayers have an especially difficult time making ends meet when infla¬ tion is high. To compensate, many economists advocate indexation; sev¬ eral countries adjust their tax rates annually in times of inflation, usually in line with the consumer price index. See also regressive tax.

Prohibition Legal prevention of the manufacture, sale, or transporta¬ tion of alcoholic beverages. In the U.S., the Prohibition movement arose out of the religious revivalism of the 1820s. Maine passed the first state Prohibition law in 1846, ushering in a wave of such state legislation. The drive toward national Prohibition was fueled by the Anti-Saloon League,

founded in 1893. With Prohibition already adopted in 33 states, the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution went into effect in 1920. Prohibition was embraced with varying degrees of enthusiasm in different parts of the country, and enforced accordingly. In urban areas, bootlegging gave rise to organized crime, with such gangsters as Al Capone. In part because of the rise in crime, its supporters gradually became disenchanted with it. The 21st Amendment repealed the 18th in 1933, and by 1966 all states had also abandoned Prohibition.

Prohibition Party Oldest minor U.S. political party still in existence. It was founded in 1869 to campaign for legislation to prohibit the manu¬ facture and sale of liquor. The party was strong in rural regions and among small-town voters affiliated with Protestant evangelical churches. It nomi¬ nated candidates for state and local offices and attained national strength in the 1888 and 1892 presidential elections, when its candidates polled 2.2% of the vote. Since 1900 it has been active mainly on local levels.

projective geometry Branch of mathematics that deals with the rela¬ tionships between geometric figures and the images (mappings) of them that result from projection. Examples of projections include motion pic¬ tures, maps of the Earth’s surface, and shadows cast by objects. One stimulus for the subject’s development was the need to understand per¬ spective in drawing and painting. Every point of the projected object and the corresponding point of its image must lie on the projection ray, a line that passes through the centre of projection. Modem projective geometry emphasizes the mathematical properties (such as straightness of lines and points of intersection) preserved in projections despite the distortion of lengths, angles, and shapes.

prokaryote \pro-'kar-e-,ot\ Any cellular organism that lacks a distinct nucleus. Bacteria (including blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria) are prokaryotes; all other organisms are eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane and most of the components of eukaryotic cells. The cytoplasm includes ribosomes that carry out protein synthesis and a double-stranded DNA chromosome, usually circular. Many prokaryotes also contain additional circular DNA molecules called plasmids. The fla¬ gella are distinct from those of eukaryotes in design and movement.

Prokofiev \pr3-'k6-fyif\, Sergey (Sergeyevich) (b. April 23,1891, Sontsovka, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. March 5, 1953, Moscow, Rus¬ sia, U.S.S.R.) Russian composer and pianist. Son of a pianist, he began writing piano pieces at age five and wrote an opera at nine. He studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (1904-14) with Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov and others. Prolific and arrogant, from 1910 he made a living by perform¬ ing as a virtuoso. He played his own first concerto at his graduation recital. During World War I he wrote his Scythian Suite (1915) and First (“Clas¬ sical”) Symphony (1917). His opera The Love for Three Oranges pre¬ miered in 1921 in Chicago. Paris was his base from 1922, and during the 1920s he produced three new symphonies and the operas The Fiery Angel (1927) and The Gambler (1928). In the 1930s he was drawn back to his homeland; there he wrote the score for the ballet Romeo and Juliet (1936), the symphonic children’s tale Peter and the Wolf (1936), and striking national music for Sergey Eisenstein’s film Alexander Nevsky (1938). World War II inspired the score to Eisenstein’s Ivan the Terrible (1942—45) and the opera War and Peace (1943). The government’s denunciation of his work in 1948 was a harsh blow; his health failed, and he died on the same day as Joseph Stalin.

prolapse Protrusion of an internal organ out of its normal place, usu¬ ally of the rectum or uterus outside the body when supporting muscles weaken. The membrane lining the rectum can push out through the anus, most often in old people with constipation who strain during defecation. Chronic rectal prolapse requires surgical repair. The uterus may prolapse into the vagina after gravity adds to weakness from childbirth injuries. Temporary supports and pelvic exercises can relieve mild uterine pro¬ lapse, but severe prolapse may require hysterectomy.

proletariat \,pro-b-'ter-e-3t\ The lowest, or one among the lowest, economic and social classes in a society. In ancient Rome, the proletariat were poor landless freemen who, crowded out of the labour market by the extension of slavery, became parasites on the economy. Karl Marx used the term to refer to the class of wage earners engaged in industrial pro¬ duction only (the broader term working class included all those obliged to work for a living). Another of Marx’s categories, the lumpenproletar- iat (lumpen meaning “rags”), comprised marginal and unemployable workers, paupers, beggars, and criminals. Marxian theory predicted a transitional phase between the abolition of capitalism and the establish-

proline ► property tax I 1553

ment of communism during which a “dictatorship of the proletariat” would suppress resistance to the socialist revolution by the bourgeoisie, destroy the social relations of production underlying the class system, and create a new, classless society.

proline \'pro- l len\ One of the nonessential amino acids, found in many proteins, especially collagen. Because the nitrogen atom of its amino group is part of a ring structure (making it a heterocyclic compound), its chemi¬ cal properties differ from those of the other amino acids in proteins. It is used in biochemical, nutritional, and microbiological research and as a dietary supplement.

promenade V.pra-mo-'nad, .pra-mo-'nadX Public place where people walk (or, in the past, rode) at leisure for pleasure, exercise, or display. Promenades are pedestrian avenues pleasingly landscaped or command¬ ing a view, often located along waterfronts and in parks. Vehicular traffic may or may not be restricted.

Prometheus Xpra-'me-the-osV In Greek religion, one of the Titans and a god of fire. He was a master craftsman and a supreme trickster, and he was sometimes associated with the creation of humans. According to leg¬ end, Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to humans. In ven¬ geance, Zeus created Pandora, who married Prometheus’s brother and set loose all the evils of the world. Another tale held that Zeus had Prometheus chained to a mountain and sent an eagle to devour his liver, which regen¬ erated every night so that he could suffer the same torment the next day.

promissory note Short-term credit instrument consisting of a written promise by one person to pay a specified amount of money to another on demand or at a given future date. Promissory notes were in use in Europe as early as the Renaissance. They are often negotiable and may be secured by the pledge of collateral. The instrument changed substantially during the 20th century, when various clauses were added regarding payment and other provisions—for example, authorizing the sale of collateral, permit¬ ting extensions of time, and allowing acceleration of payment in the event of default. See also bill of exchange.

Promoters Revolution (1932) Bloodless coup that put an end to absolute monarchy in Siam (Thailand) and initiated the Constitutional Era. The coup was headed by the Promoters, a group that included mem¬ bers of the Thai elite, noted intellectuals, and disaffected army officers. Their first constitution, the Temporary Constitution, stripped the king of power and put it in the hands of the Promoters themselves. The Perma¬ nent, or December, Constitution restored some of the royal prestige and dignity and introduced some liberal, Western-style reforms. None of Thai¬ land’s subsequent constitutions effectively limited political power or pro¬ vided a means by which political contests could be decided. See also Luang Phibunsongkhram; Pridi Phanomyong.

pronghorn Ruminant (Antilocapra americana) of North American plains and semideserts, the only liv¬ ing member of the family Antiloca- pridae. The pronghorn stands 30-40 in. (80-100 cm) tall. It is reddish brown with a short, dark-brown mane, white underparts, two white bands on the throat, and a circular white patch on the rump. Both sexes bear erect, two-pronged horns; the longer prong curves backward, the shorter prong forward. Pronghorns live alone or in small bands in sum¬ mer, and in large herds in winter. The fastest mammal of North America, the pronghorn can run 45 mph (70 kph) and can bound up to 20 ft (6 m). Though tens of millions once roamed the West, they were nearly exterminated by hunters in the early 20th century; conservation efforts have since allowed their populations to increase.

proof In logic and mathematics, an argument that establishes a propo¬ sition’s validity. Formally, it is a finite sequence of formulas generated according to accepted rules. Each formula either is an axiom or is derived from a previously established theorem, and the last formula is the state¬ ment that is to be proven. The essence of deductive reasoning (see deduc¬ tion), this is the basis of Euclidean geometry and all scientific methods inspired by it. An alternative form of proof, called mathematical induc¬

tion, applies to propositions defined through processes based on the count¬ ing numbers. If the proposition holds for n = 1 and can be shown to hold for n = k + 1 whenever n = k (a constant) is also true, then it holds for all values of n. An example is the assertion that the sum of the first n count¬ ing numbers is n(n + l)/2.

propaganda Manipulation of information to influence public opinion. The term comes from Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), a missionary organization established by the pope in 1622. Propagandists emphasize the elements of information that support their position and deemphasize or exclude those that do not. Misleading statements and even lies may be used to create the desired effect in the public audience. Lobbying, advertising, and missionary activ¬ ity are all forms of propaganda, but the term is most commonly used in the political arena. Prior to the 20th century, pictures and the written media were the principal instruments of propaganda; radio, television, motion pictures, and the Internet later joined their ranks. Authoritarian and totali¬ tarian regimes use propaganda to win and keep the support of the popu¬ lace. In wartime, propaganda directed by a country at its own civilian population and military forces can boost morale; propaganda aimed at the enemy is an element of psychological warfare.

propane Colourless, easily liquefied hydrocarbon gas (C 3 H 8 or, more fully, CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 ). Separated in large quantities from natural gas, light crude oil, and oil-refinery gases, it is available as liquefied propane or as a major constituent of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). It is an important raw material for the manufacture of ethylene and for the petrochemical industry. It is also used as a refrigerant, extractant, solvent, aerosol pro¬ pellant, and fuel for portable cooking appliances, torches, and lighters.

propeller Device with a central hub and radiating blades placed so that each forms part of a helical (spiral) surface, used to propel a vehicle such as a ship or airplane. By its rotation in water or air, the propeller produces thrust on the blades, which gives forward motion to the vehicle.

proper motion Apparent motion of a star across the celestial sphere at right angles to the observer’s line of sight, generally measured in seconds of arc per year. Any radial motion (toward or away from the observer) is not included. Edmond Halley was the first to detect proper motions; the largest known is that of Barnard's star, about 10 seconds yearly.

Propertius Xpro-'por-shos, pro-'por-she-asV, Sextus (b. 55/43, Assisi, Umbria—d. after 16 bc, Rome) Roman poet. Very few details of his life are known. The first and best known of his four books of elegies (see elegy), Cynthia, was published in 29 bc, the year he met its heroine (his mistress, whose real name was Hostia). She emerges from his poems as beautiful, uninhibited, jealous, and irresistible. In Book II his main theme is still love, but he also contemplates writing an epic, is preoccupied with thoughts of death, and attacks the materialism of his time. Books III and IV demonstrate a bold command of language and various literary forms; among the subjects are Roman mythology and history.

property In law, something that is owned or possessed. Concepts of property vary widely among cultures. In the West, property is generally regarded as either tangible (e.g., land or goods) or intangible (e.g., stocks and bonds or a patent). Individual ownership of property is emphasized in Western societies, whereas in many non-Western societies property own¬ ership is deemphasized or conceived on a more strictly communal basis. The use of property is extensively regulated throughout the West. Land- owners injured by adjoining land uses may sue in nuisance in Anglo- American countries; similar actions exist in civil-law countries. Throughout the West, landowners may agree to allow others to use their land in ways that would otherwise be actionable, and such agreements may be made to bind those to whom the land is conveyed. Anglo-American law tends to divide these grants of use rights into categories that reflect their common- law origins: easements (such as rights of way), profits (such as the right to take minerals or timber), real covenants (such as a promise to pay a home- owners’ association fee), and equitable servitudes (such as a promise to use the property for residential purposes only). The civil law has fewer catego¬ ries, the general category “servitudes” tending to cover for them all, and is a bit more restrictive. A common means of acquiring property is by transfer from the previous owner or owners. Such transfers include sales, dona¬ tions, and inheritance. See also adverse possession; community property; intel¬ lectual property; prescription; real and personal property.

property tax Levy imposed on real estate (land and buildings) and in some jurisdictions on personal property such as automobiles, jewelry, and

1554 I prophet ► proscenium

furniture. Some countries also levy property taxes on farm equipment, business equipment, and inventories as well as intangibles such as stocks and bonds. Property taxes are usually levied by local or state governments rather than national governments, and they are a major source of tax rev¬ enue. Property taxes existed in the ancient world first as land taxes and later as taxes on farmhouses, livestock, and so on. The administration of a property tax involves identifying the property to be taxed, assessing its value, determining the appropriate tax rate, and collecting the requisite sum of money. Though sometimes burdensome to the poor, property taxes generally tend to redistribute the benefits of wealth from higher to lower income groups, since they often pay for schools and other services used by low-income groups. See also capital-gains tax; consumption tax; income tax; progressive tax; regressive tax.

prophet Person who speaks by divine inspiration, revealing or inter¬ preting the will of a god. Prophets have appeared in many religions throughout history. The most familiar in the West are such Old Testament leaders as Moses, Isaiah, and Daniel, along with the Prophet Muhammad. In contrast to the diviner or interpreter of omens (see divination), who may answer private questions, prophets often address the destiny and moral life of a whole people. Some prophets seek to create a new society that will realize their message and thus found new religions. Others may look only to reform or purify an existing society and religion. The tone of prophecy ranges widely, from ecstasy, inspired utterance, and ethical fer¬ vor to passionate social criticism, prediction of the future, and expecta¬ tion Of APOCALYPSE.

Prophet, The orig. Tenskwatawa (b. c. March 1768, Old Chilli- cothe, Ohio—d. 1834, Argentine, Kan., U.S.) North American Indian leader. The brother of Tecumseh, he maintained a strong following among the Shawnee on the strength of his 1805 declaration that he had received a message from the “Master of Life” and had contact with the supernatu¬ ral. Advocating a return to traditional ways of life, he rejected the white man’s introduction of alcohol, textile clothing, and individual ownership of property, and he worked with Tecumseh for an Indian confederacy to resist U.S. encroachment on Indian land. In Tecumseh’s absence he allowed the Shawnee to be drawn into and defeated at the Battle of Tippe¬ canoe (1811).

Prophet's Mosque House of worship built on the site of Muhammad’s house in Medina, considered one of the three holiest places of Islam. It was originally a simple brick structure surrounding an enclosed courtyard where people gathered to hear Muhammad. Muhammad later built roofed galleries to shelter his visitors, and in 628 a pulpit was added to raise him above the crowd. In 706 Caliph al-Walld I pulled down the original build¬ ing and built a mosque on the site, which contains Muhammad’s tomb. The mosque served as the model for later Islamic architecture.

proportion/proportionality In algebra, equality between two _ RATIOS. In the expression alb = dd, a and b are in the same proportion as

c and d. A proportion is typically set up to solve a word problem in which wm one of its four quantities is unknown. It is solved by multiplying one

M numerator by the opposite denominator and equating the product to that

of the other numerator and denominator. The term proportionality describes any relationship that is always in the same ratio. The number [jj| of apples in a crop, for example, is proportional to the number of trees in

the orchard, the ratio of proportionality being the average number of apples per tree.

proportional representation Electoral system in which the share of seats held by a political party in the legislature closely matches the share of popular votes it received. It was devised in Europe in the mid-19th century to guarantee minority groups more representation than was pos¬ sible under the majority or plurality systems. Its supporters claim that it cre¬ ates a more accurate reflection of public opinion; its opponents argue that by allowing more parties in a legislature, it may result in weaker, less stable governments. Two methods for apportioning seats are the single- transferable-vote method, under which voters rank candidates by prefer¬ ence, and the list system, under which voters select a party’s list of candidates rather than individuals. Some countries (e.g., Germany and Russia) use a combination of plurality and proportional methods for allo¬ cating seats in the lower house of the national legislature. See also leg¬ islative APPORTIONMENT.

propositional attitude Psychological state expressed by a verb that may take a subordinate clause beginning with “that” as its complement. Verbs such as “believe,” “hope,” “fear,” “desire,” “intend,” and “know”

all express propositional attitudes. The linguistic contexts created by their use are typically referentially opaque (see intentionality) in the sense that the substitution of co-referential expressions within them may change the “truth value” (true or false) of the containing sentence. Thus, to use Ber¬ trand Russell’s example, though it is true that Peter believes that Walter Scott was a Scotsman, it may be false that he believes that the author of Waverley (who is Scott) was a Scotsman.

propositional calculus Formal system of propositions and their logi¬ cal relationships. As opposed to the predicate calculus, the propositional calculus employs simple, unanalyzed propositions rather than predicates as its atomic units. Simple (atomic) propositions are denoted by lower¬ case Roman letters (e.g., p, q), and compound (molecular) propositions are formed using the standard symbols a for “and,” v for “or,” z> for “if . . . then,” and —■ for “not.” As a formal system, the propositional calcu¬ lus is concerned with determining which formulas (compound proposi¬ tion forms) are provable from the axioms. Valid inferences among propositions are reflected by the provable formulas, because (for any for¬ mulas A and B) Ad B is provable if and only if B is a logical conse¬ quence of A. The propositional calculus is consistent in that there exists no formula A in it such that both A and —■ A are provable. It is also com¬ plete in the sense that the addition of any unprovable formula as a new axiom would introduce a contradiction. Further, there exists an effective procedure for deciding whether a given formula is provable in the sys¬ tem. See also logic, predicate calculus, laws of thought.

propositional function Sentencelike expression that may be thought of as obtained from a sentence by substituting variables for constants occurring in the sentence. For example, “x was a parent of y” may be thought of as obtained from “Adam was a parent of Abel.” A proposi¬ tional function therefore has no truth-value, becoming true or false only when its free variables are replaced by constants of appropriate syntactic categories (e.g., “Abraham was a parent of Isaac”).

proprietary colony Type of settlement in British North America (1660-90). To repay political and financial debts, the British crown, beginning with Charles II, awarded supporters vast tracts of land in colo¬ nial New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Carolinas. The proprietors were to supervise and develop the colonies, which became successful enterprises. By 1690 concern about the colonies’ growing inde¬ pendence from control by British officials led to the end of proprietary grants.

proprioception V.pro-pre-o-'sep-shonX Perception of stimuli relating to position, posture, equilibrium, or internal condition. Receptors (nerve end¬ ings) in skeletal muscles and on tendons provide constant information on limb position and muscle action for coordination of limb movements. Awareness of equilibrium changes usually involves perception of gravity. In humans, gravity, position, and orientation are registered by tiny grains called otoliths moving within two fluid-filled sacs in the inner ear in response to any change in position or orientation. Their motion is detected by sense hairs. Rotation is detected by the inertial lag of fluid in the semi¬ circular canals acting on the sense hairs. The central nervous system inte¬ grates signals from the canals to perceive rotation in three dimensions. See also sense.

propylaeum N.pra-po-'le-om, .pro-po-'le-omV In ancient Greek archi¬ tecture, a structure forming an entrance or gateway to a sacred enclosure, usually consisting, at the least, of a porch supported by columns both out¬ side and within the actual gate. The term is often used in the plural (pro- pylaea). The most famous example is the great Propylaea designed by Mnesicles for the Athenian Acropolis. The name propylaea was also applied to various 18th-19th-century Neoclassical and Romantic monu¬ mental gateways.

proscenium \pro-'se-ne-3m\ In a theatre, the frame or arch separating the stage from the auditorium, through which the action of a play is viewed. In ancient Greek theatres, the proskenion was an area in front of the SKENE that eventually functioned as the stage. The first permanent proscenium in the modern sense was built in 1618 at the Farnese Theatre in Parma. Though the arch contained a stage curtain, its main purpose was to pro¬ vide a sense of spectacle and illusion; scene changes were carried out in view of the audience. Not until the 18th century was the curtain com¬ monly used to hide scene changes. The proscenium opening was of par¬ ticular importance to 19th-century realist playwrights, for whom it served as a picture frame or an invisible wall through which the audience expe¬ rienced the illusion of spying on the characters.

prose ► protectionism I 1555

prose Literary medium distinguished from poetry especially by its greater irregularity and variety of rhythm and its closer correspondence to the patterns of everyday speech. Though it is readily distinguishable from poetry in that it does not treat a line as a formal unit, the significant differences between prose and poetry are of tone, pace, and sometimes subject matter.

prose poem Work in prose that has some of the technical or literary qualities of poetry (such as regular rhythm, definitely patterned structure, or emotional or imaginative heightening) but that is set on a page as prose. The form took its name from Charles Baudelaire’s Little Poems in Prose (1869). Other writers of prose poems include, in the 19th century, Stephane Mallarme, Arthur Rimbaud, Friedrich Holderlin, Novalis, and Rainer Maria Rilke, and in the 20th, Amy Lowell (in her “polyphonic prose”) and such contemporary poets as John Ashbery.

prosecutor Government attorney who presents the state’s case against the defendant in a criminal prosecution. In some countries (France, Japan), public prosecution is carried out by a single office. In the U.S., states and counties have their own prosecutors. Only at the federal level is the sys¬ tem unitary; the U.S. attorney general’s office appoints a U.S. attorney for each federal district. In most state and local jurisdictions, prosecutors are elected to office. Whether elected or appointed, prosecutors are often sub¬ ject to political pressures. A prosecutor takes charge of the investigation once a crime has been committed, presents evidence at a hearing before a grand jury, and questions witnesses during the trial. See also independent counsel.

Proserpina See Persephone

prosody Vpra-so-de, 'pra-z9-de\ Study of the elements of language, especially metre, that contribute to rhythmic and acoustic effects in poetry. The basis of “traditional” prosody in English is the classification of verse according to the syllable stress of its lines. Effects such as rhyme scheme, alliteration, and assonance further influence a poem’s “sound meaning.” Nonmetrical prosodic study is sometimes applied to modern poetry, and visual prosody is used when verse is “shaped” by its typographical arrangement. Prosody also involves examining the subtleties of a poem’s rhythm, its “flow,” the historical period to which it belongs, the poetic genre, and the poet’s individual style.

Prosser, Gabriel See Gabriel

prostaglandin \,pras-t3-'glan-d3n\ Any of a class of organic com¬ pounds that occur in many animal tissues and have diverse hormonelike effects in animals (see hormone). Their common chemical structure is derived from a fatty acid with 20 carbon atoms. They have important effects on blood pressure, blood clotting, pain sensation, and reproduction mechanisms, but one prostaglandin may have different and even opposite effects in different tissues. They hold promise for treating heart disease and viral diseases and may be useful in contraception. Some substances that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis (see aspirin) are useful in controlling pain, asthma attacks, or anaphylactic shock or as anticoagulants.

prostate cancer Malignant tumour of the prostate gland. Prostate can¬ cer commonly occurs in men over age 50. Symptoms include frequent or painful urination, blood in the urine, sexual dysfunction, swollen lymph nodes in the groin, and pain in the pelvis, hips, back, or ribs. The like¬ lihood of developing prostate cancer doubles if there is a family history. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, che¬ motherapy, or a combination of two or more of these approaches.

prostate gland Vpras-,tat\ Chestnut-shaped male reproductive organ, located under the bladder, which adds secretions to the sperm during ejacu¬ lation of semen. It surrounds the urethra (see urinary system) and is rounded at the top, narrowing to a blunt point. The prostate consists of 30-50 glands, supported by connective tissue, that discharge fluids into the ure¬ thra and two ejaculatory ducts. Those ducts, which also carry sperm and fluid discharged by the seminal vesicles, join the urethra inside the pros¬ tate. The prostate contributes 15-30% of the seminal fluid. It reaches its mature size at puberty. Around age 50, it commonly shrinks and decreases its secretions; an increase in size after midlife may be due to inflamma¬ tion or malignancy. See also prostatic disorder.

prostatic disorder \pra-'sta-tik\ Abnormality or disease of the pros¬ tate gland. About half of all men over 60 have some nonmalignant enlarge¬ ment, or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The gland may eventually compress the urethra, causing problems urinating. Severe cases can lead

to infection, bladder stones, obstruction, and kidney failure. Prostate can¬ cer, also found mainly in older men, can be deadly but usually grows so slowly that most patients die of something else before the cancer spreads. Since surgery and radiation therapy often lead to incontinence and impo¬ tence, many cases are monitored (through prostate-specific antigen, or PSA, tests) and treated only if necessary. Gonorrhea and other bacterial infections involving the prostate are treated with antibiotics.

prosthesis \pras-'the-s3s\ Artificial substitute for a missing part of the body, usually an arm or leg. Prostheses have evolved from wooden legs and hooks that replaced hands to sophisticated plastic, fibreglass, and metal devices designed to fit limbs amputated at different points. They may have working joints and allow motion either by amplification of electric current generated by muscle contractions or by actual attachment to the muscles. Arm prostheses usually allow some degree of grasping and manipulation. External or implanted breast prostheses are used after mastectomy.

prostitution Practice of engaging in sexual activity, usually with indi¬ viduals other than a spouse or friend, in exchange for immediate payment in money or other valuables. Prostitutes may be of either sex and may engage in either heterosexual or homosexual activity, but historically most prostitution has been by females with males as clients. Prostitution is a very old and universal phenomenon; also universal is condemnation of the prostitute but relative indifference toward the client. Prostitutes are often set apart in some way. In ancient Rome they were required to wear distinctive dress; under Hebrew law only foreign women could be pros¬ titutes; in prewar Japan they were required to live in special sections of the city. In medieval Europe prostitution was licensed and regulated by law, but by the 16th century an epidemic of venereal disease and post- Reformation morality led to the closure of brothels. International coop¬ eration to end the traffic in women for the purpose of prostitution began in 1899. In 1921 the League of Nations established the Committee on the Traffic in Women and Children, and in 1949 the UN General Assembly adopted a convention for the suppression of prostitution. In the U.S. pros¬ titution was first curtailed by the Mann Act (1910), and by 1915 most states had banned brothels (Nevada being a notable exception). Prostitu¬ tion is nevertheless tolerated in most U.S. and European cities. In The Netherlands many prostitutes have become members of a professional service union, and in Scandinavia government regulations emphasize hygienic aspects, requiring frequent medical examination and providing free mandatory hospitalization for anyone found to be infected with vene¬ real disease. Prostitutes are very often poor and lack skills to support themselves; in many traditional societies there are few other available money-earning occupations for women without family support. In devel¬ oping African and Asian countries, prostitution has been largely respon¬ sible for the spread of AIDS and the orphaning of hundreds of thousands of children.

Protagoras \pro-'tag-o-r3s\ (b. 485, Abdera, Greece—d. c. 410 bc) Greek philosopher, first and most famous of the sophists. He spent most of his life at Athens, where he considerably influenced contemporary thought on moral and political questions. Plato named one of his dialogues after him. Protagoras claimed to teach men “virtue” in the conduct of their daily lives. He is best known for his dictum, “Man is the measure of all things” (see relativism; ethical relativism). Though he adopted conventional moral ideas, his work Concerning the Gods advocated agnosticism regard¬ ing religious belief. He was accused of impiety, his books were publicly burned, and he was exiled from Athens c. 415 bc.

protectionism Policy of protecting domestic industries against foreign competition by means of tariffs, subsidies, import quotas, or other handi¬ caps placed on imports. The chief protectionist measures, government- levied tariffs, raise the price of imported articles, making them less attractive to consumers than cheaper domestic products. Import quotas, which limit the quantities of goods that can be imported, are another pro¬ tectionist device. Wars and economic depressions historically have resulted in increases in protectionism, while peace and prosperity have tended to encourage free trade. Protectionist policies were common in Europe in the 17th—18th centuries under mercantilism. Britain abandoned many of its protectionist laws in the 19th century, and by World War I tariffs were low throughout the Western world. Economic and political dislocation led to rising customs barriers in Europe in the 1920s, and the Great Depression produced a spate of protectionist measures; world trade shrank drastically as a result. The U.S. had a long history of protection¬ ism, with tariffs reaching high points in the 1820s and the Great Depres-

1556 I protectorate ► protoceratops

sion, but in 1947 it became one of 23 nations to sign the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which substantially reduced customs tariff's while reducing or eliminating quotas. Despite trade agreements such as GATT and NAFTA, calls for protectionism are still heard in many coun¬ tries when industries suffer severely from foreign competition. See also trade agreement; World Trade Organization.

protectorate Relationship in which one country exercises some deci¬ sive control over another country or region. The degree of control may vary from one in which the protecting state guarantees the safety of the other to one that is a disguised form of annexation. Though the relation¬ ship is an ancient one, the use of the term dates only from the 19th cen¬ tury. In modern times most protectorates have been established by treaties requiring the weaker state to surrender management of its international relations, thus losing part of its sovereignty.

protein Any of numerous organic compounds, complex polymers of amino acids that are involved in nearly every aspect of the physiology and biochemistry of living organisms. Twenty different amino acids are com¬ mon to proteins, linked in chains of hundreds to thousands of units. An active protein molecule has three important levels of structure: primary (the amino acid sequence), determined by the genes; secondary (the geo¬ metric shape, often a helix), determined by the angles of the covalent bonds between and within amino acids; and tertiary (the looped and folded overall shape), determined largely by attraction between oppositely charged groups (and repulsion between like charged groups) on amino- acid side chains and especially by hydrogen bonding. The tertiary struc¬ ture, which can be globular or sheetlike with ridges, crevices, or pockets, often holds the key to a protein’s biological activity. Proteins can serve, e.g., as structural material (as in connective tissue and hair; see collagen; keratin), as enzymes and hormones, as transporters of essential substances such as oxygen (see hemoglobin), as antibodies, or as regulators of gene expression. Some proteins are simple (amino acids only), some conju¬ gated (see conjugation) to other groups, often vitamins or metal atoms needed in tiny amounts in the diet (see coenzyme; cofactor). Rhodopsin and hemoglobin are conjugated proteins. Proteins may be covalently linked to other atoms or molecules, as to sugars (glycoproteins), phosphate groups (phosphoproteins), or sulfur (sulfoproteins). Proteins are an essen¬ tial human nutrient, obtained from both plant and animal foods. Their greatest commercial use is in food products; they are also employed in adhesives, plastics, and fibres.

proteolysis X.pro-te-'a-lo-sosX Process in which a protein is broken down partially, into peptides, or completely, into amino acids, by proteolytic enzymes, present in bacteria and in plants but most abundant in animals. Proteins in food are attacked in the stomach by pepsin and in the small intestine mainly by trypsin and chymotrypsin from the pancreas. Pro¬ teolytic enzymes are secreted as zymogens, which are themselves con¬ verted by proteolysis to their active forms. Many other zymogens or precursors undergo proteolysis to form active enzymes or proteins (e.g., fibrinogen to fibrin). In cells, proteolytic degradation of old proteins is part of cellular maintenance.

Proterozoic V.pra-to-ro-'zo-ik, .pro-ts-ro-'zo-ikN Eon Younger of the two divisions of Precambrian time, from 2.5 billion to 543 million years ago. Proterozoic rocks have been identified on all the continents and often constitute important sources of metallic ores, notably of iron, gold, cop¬ per, uranium, and nickel. The many small protocontinents that had formed during early Precambrian time had coalesced into one or several large landmasses by the beginning of the Proterozoic. Rocks of the Proterozoic contain many traces of primitive life forms, such as the fossil remains of bacteria and blue-green algae (see cyanobacteria).

Protestant ethic Value attached to hard work, thrift, and self-discipline under certain Protestant doctrines, particularly those of Calvinism. Max Weber, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-05), held that the Protestant ethic was an important factor in the economic success of Protestant groups in the early stages of European capitalism, in that worldly success came to be interpreted as a sign of the individual’s election to eternal salvation. Weber’s thesis was variously criticized and expanded throughout the 20th century. See also Protestantism; Richard H. Tawney.

Protestantism One of the three major branches of Christianity, origi¬ nating in the 16th-century Reformation. The term applies to the beliefs of Christians who do not adhere to Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy. A variety of Protestant denominations grew out of the Reformation. The

followers of Martin Luther established the evangelical churches of Ger¬ many and Scandinavia; John Calvin and more radical reformers such as Huldrych Zwingli founded Reformed churches in Switzerland, and Calvin’s disciple John Knox established a church in Scotland (Presbyterianism). Another important branch of Protestantism, represented by the Church of England and Episcopal Church, had its origins in 16th-century England and is now the Protestant denomination closest to Roman Catholicism in the¬ ology and worship. The doctrines of the various Protestant denominations vary considerably, but all emphasize the supremacy of the Bible in mat¬ ters of faith and order, justification by grace through faith and not through works, and the priesthood of all believers. In the early 21st century there were nearly 350 million Protestants in the world. See also Adventist, Bap¬ tist, Society of Friends, Mennonite, Methodism.

Proteus \'pro-te-3s\ In Greek mythology, the prophetic old man of the sea and the shepherd of sea animals such as seals. He was subject to Poseidon. He knew all things—past, present, and future—but disliked telling what he knew. Those who wanted information from him had to catch him sleeping and bind him. He would try to escape by changing his form, but if a captor held him fast he gave the wished-for answer and plunged into the sea.

prothrombin \pro-'thram-bin\ Carbohydrate-protein compound in plasma essential to coagulation. In response to bleeding, a complex series of clotting-factor interactions leads to its conversion by thromboplastin to thrombin, which transforms fibrinogen in plasma into fibrin. Fibrin and platelets combine to form a clot. Hemophilia is caused by a hereditary lack of one of the clotting factors. Vitamin K is needed to synthesize prothrom¬ bin, so conditions that impair the vitamin’s absorption result in prothrom¬ bin deficiency and a tendency to prolonged bleeding.

protist \'pro-t9St\ Any member of a kingdom (Protista) of diverse eukary¬ otes, including algae, protozoans, and lower fungi (see fungus). Most are single-celled organisms, though the algae tend to be multicellular. Many can move, mainly by using flagella (see flagellum), cilia (see cilium), or footlike extensions (pseudopodia). The kingdom was developed to accom¬ modate intermediate organisms that, even though they possessed some plant or animal characteristics, did not exhibit the specialized features indicative of those groups. Some protists are considered the ancestors of multicellular plants, animals, and fungi. The term was first suggested in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel. With the development of advanced biochemical, genetic, and imaging techniques, previously established relationships have come under scrutiny, and it is now thought that some groups are less closely related to one another than once believed. As a result, the clas¬ sification of protists, while convenient, is no longer entirely satisfactory.

Proto-Geometric style Visual art style of ancient Greece that sig¬ naled the reawakening of technical proficiency and conscious creative spirit after the collapse of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, around the 12th century bc. The vocabulary of the style was limited to circles, arcs, triangles, and wavy lines, all derived from Minoan- Mycenaean representations of aquatic and plant life. On pottery, these design elements were carefully placed in horizontal bands, mainly at a vase’s shoulder or belly. Its lower portion was usually either left plain or painted in a solid glossy black pig¬ ment inherited from Bronze Age art¬ ists.

protoceratops

N.pro-ts-'ser-o-.tapsN Any member of a genus of quadrupedal dinosaurs found as fossils in Gobi deposits of the Cretaceous period (144-65 million years ago). The hind limbs were more strongly developed than the forelimbs; the back was arched. Adults were about 7 ft (2 m) long and probably weighed about 400 lbs (180 kg). The skull was about one-fifth the body length. Bones in the skull grew backward into a perforated frill. The jaws were beaklike and toothed. There may have been a hornlike structure on top of the snout. Long spines on the well-developed tail suggest that protoceratops was semiaquatic.

Proto-Geometric amphora from Ath¬ ens, early 10th century bc; in the Ker- ameikos Museum, Athens.

HIRMER FOTOARCHIV, MUNICH

Protococcus ► Proudhon I 1557

Protococcus \,pro-t3-'ka-k9s\ or Pleurococcus Genus of green algae. Popularly called moss though not actually classified as such, it is found as a thin, green covering on the moist, shaded side of trees, rocks, and soil. The spherical cells, either solitary or clumped together forming short false filaments, have heavy cell walls that protect them against excessive water loss. Each cell contains a large dense chloroplast. The position of Protococcus in classification systems is uncertain.

protocol In computer science, a set of rules or procedures for transmit¬ ting data between electronic devices, such as computers. In order for computers to exchange information, there must be a preexisting agree¬ ment as to how the information will be structured and how each side will send and receive it. Without a protocol, a transmitting computer, for example, could be sending its data in 8-bit packets while the receiving computer might expect the data in 16-bit packets. Protocols are estab¬ lished by international or industrywide organizations. Perhaps the most important computer protocol is OSI (Open Systems Interconnection), a set of guidelines for implementing networking communications between computers. The most important sets of Internet protocols are TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.

proton Stable subatomic particle (one of the baryons) with a unit of posi¬ tive electric charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron. Protons are found in the atomic nucleus along with neutrons. For every nucleus of a given element, the number of protons is always the same; this num¬ ber is the element’s atomic number. A single proton is the nucleus of an atom of ordinary hydrogen; as such, it is identical to the hydrogen ion (H + ). Protons have antimatter counterparts (antiprotons), with the same mass but a negative charge. Protons are used as projectiles in particle accelerators to produce and study nuclear reactions. They are the chief constituent of primary cosmic rays and are among the products of radio¬ active decay (see radioactivity) and nuclear reactions.

protozoal X.pro-ts-'zo-slV diseases Diseases caused by protozoans. These organisms may remain in the human host for their entire life cycle, but many carry out part of their reproductive cycle in insects or other hosts. For example, mosquitoes are vectors of Plasmodium, the cause of malaria. See also entamoeba; Giardia lamblia; sleeping sickness.

protozoan N.pro-ts-'zo-siA Any of a group of small (usually micro¬ scopic) single-celled protists. They are found in most soils, fresh water, and oceans. While most are solitary individuals, various colonial forms exist. The taxonomic relationships of protozoans to one another and to other protists continue to be revised. The smallest known protozoans are tiny blood parasites less than 2 microns long; the largest may be 16 mm long and visible to the naked eye. Protozoan shapes vary, but all share such eukaryotic features as lipid-protein membranes and membrane- enclosed vacuoles and organelles (see eukaryote). They show wide varia¬ tion in modes of movement, nutrition, and reproduction. Various classification systems exist to group the protozoans. The major phyla include Sarcomastigophora (flagellated forms and forms possessing cyto¬ plasmic extensions called pseudopodia), Ciliophora (ciliated forms), and Apicomplexa, Microspora, and Myxozoa (spore-producing forms). Api- complexa and Microspora are sometimes included in the single phylum Sporozoa. Commonly known protozoans include dinoflagellates, amoebas, and paramecia (see Paramecium). See illustration opposite.

protractor Instrument for constructing and measuring plane angles. The simplest protractor is a semicircular disk marked in degrees from 0° to 180°. A more complex protractor, for plotting position on navigation charts, is called a three-arm protractor, or station pointer, and consists of a circular scale connected to three arms. The centre arm is fixed, while the outer two can be rotated to any desired angle relative to the centre one. A related instrument is the course protractor, which allows naviga¬ tors to measure the angular distance between north and the course plot¬ ted on a navigation chart.

Proudhon \pru-'do n \, Pierre-Joseph (b. Jan. 15, 1809, Besangon, France—d. Jan. 19, 1865, Paris) French journalist and socialist. After working as a printer, he moved to Paris in 1838 and joined the socialist movement. His What Is Property? (1840) created a sensation with such phrases as “property is theft.” While working in Lyon (1843-48), he encountered the Mutualists, a weavers’ anarchist society whose name he later adopted for his form of anarchism. His System of Economic Contra¬ dictions (1846) was attacked by Karl Marx and initiated the split between anarchists and Marxists. In Paris in 1848, Proudhon published radical newspapers; imprisoned (1849-52), he was harassed by the police after

phylum Sarcomastigophora

subphylum Mastigophora

phylum

Ciliophora

cavity

undulating

membrane

-cilium

Tetrahymena

membranes

myoneme (contractile filament)

Vorticella

phylum

Apicomplexa

class Sporozoa

Representative protozoans. The zooflagellate Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of African sleeping sickness. The phytoflagellate Gonyaulax is one of the dinoflagellates responsible for the occurrence of red tides. The amoeba is one of the most common sarcodines. Other members of the subphylum Sarcodina, such as the radiolarians, heliozoans, and foraminiferans, usually possess protective coverings. The heliozoan Pinaciophora is shown covered with scales. The subphylum Cilio¬ phora, which includes the ciliated Tetrahymena and Vorticella, contains the greatest number of protozoan species but is the most homogeneous group. The malaria- causing Plasmodium is spread by the bite of a mosquito that injects infective spores (sporozoites) into the bloodstream.

1558 I Proulx ► Prusiner

his release and fled to Belgium in 1858. On his return in 1862, he gained influence among the workers, including some of the founders of the First International.

Proulx \'prii\, (Edna) Annie (b. Aug. 22,1935, Norwich, Conn., U.S.) U.S. writer. She studied at the University of Vermont. She began profes¬ sional writing with commissioned nonfiction books on cooking, garden¬ ing, and country living. She founded and edited (1984-86) Behind the Times, a rural Vermont newspaper, and published stories in men’s out¬ door magazines. Her first novel, Postcards (1992), depicting the decline of the small farm, received the PEN/Faulkner Award. It was followed by The Shipping News (1993, Pulitzer Prize, National Book Award) and Accordion Crimes (1996). Her story collections Heart Songs (1988) and Close Range (1999) also won high praise.

Proust Vpriist\, Marcel (b. July 10, 1871, Auteuil, near Paris, France—d. Nov. 18, 1922, Paris)

French novelist. Bom to a wealthy family, he studied law and literature.

His social connections allowed him to become an observant habitue of the most exclusive drawing rooms of the nobility, and he wrote social pieces for Parisian journals. He pub¬ lished essays and stories, including the story collection Pleasures and Days (1896). He had suffered from asthma since childhood, and c. 1897 he began to disengage from social life as his health declined. Half- Jewish himself, he became a major supporter of Alfred Dreyfus in the affair that made French anti- Semitism into a national issue.

Deeply affected by his mother’s death in 1905, he withdrew further from society. An incident of invol¬ untary revival of childhood memory in 1909 led him to retire almost totally into an eccentric seclusion in his cork-lined bedroom to write A la recherche du temps perdu (1913-27; In Search of Lost Time, or Remembrance of Things Past). The vast seven- part novel is at once a kind of autobiography, a vast social panorama of France in the years just before and during World War I, and an immense meditation on love and jealousy and on art and its relation to reality. One of the supreme achievements in fiction of all time, it brought him world¬ wide fame and affected the entire climate of the 20th-century novel.

Provencal language See Occitan language

Provence \pro-'va n s\ Historical, cultural, and governmental region, southeast-coastal France. Provence was part of Roman Gallia Transalpina. m With the breakdown of the Roman Empire in the late 5th century,

Provence was invaded successively by the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Ostrogoths. It came under the rule of the Franks c. 536. During the 13th century it was involved in the Albigensian Crusade. It was united with the French crown in 1481. The language of Provence, Provencal, was impor¬ tant in medieval literature, and Provence’s Romanesque architecture was an outstanding cultural achievement of the Middle Ages. The region suf¬ fered in the 16th-century Wars of Religion. In 1790, during the French Revolution, it lost its political institutions and was divided into several departements. The historical region of Provence is roughly coextensive with the present-day region of Provence-Alpes-Cote d’Azur (pop., 2003 est.: 4,665,051), which has an area of 12,124 sq mi (31,400 sq km); its capital is Marseille.

proverb Succinct and pithy saying that is in general use and expresses commonly held ideas and beliefs. Proverbs are part of every spoken lan¬ guage and folk literature, originating in oral tradition. Often a proverb is found with variations in many different parts of the world. Literate soci¬ eties dating to the ancient Egyptians have collected proverbs. One of the earliest English proverb collections, The Proverbs of Alfred, dates from c. 1150-80. In North America the best-known collection is probably Poor Richard’s, an almanac published 1732-57 by Benjamin Franklin.

Providence City (pop., 2000: 173,618), capital of Rhode Island, U.S. It is located at the head of Narragansett Bay on the Providence River. Founded in 1636 by Roger Williams as a refuge for religious dissenters, it

was partly destroyed in King Philip's War in 1676. It played an important role in the American Revolution and was a major port in trade with the West Indies in the 18th century. Incorporated as a city in 1831, it became the sole capital of the state in 1900. Previously it had shared that honour with Newport since 1854. A seaport and an industrial and commercial centre, it is the focus of a metropolitan area that includes Pawtucket and East Providence. Educational institutions include Brown University and the Rhode Island School of Design.

Provincetown Town (pop., 2000: 3,431), eastern Massachusetts, U.S. At the northern tip of Cape Cod, Provincetown was the first landing place of the Pilgrims in 1620, and the Mayflower Compact was drawn up in its harbour. Incorporated as a town in 1727, it was a whaling and fishing port in the 19th century. Bounded by the Cape Cod National Seashore, it is a popular summer resort and noted artists’ colony. The Provincetown Play¬ ers theatre group originated there.

Provincetown Players U.S. theatrical company. It was founded in 1915 by a group of writers and artists in Provincetown, Mass., to encour¬ age new and experimental works. Among their first productions, which were often staged in members’ homes, was the first play by Eugene O'Neill, a founding member whose career was launched by the Players. In 1916 the players moved to New York’s Greenwich Village. There they introduced several more of O’Neill’s plays as well as works by Edna St. Vincent Millay, Susan Glaspell, Paul Green, and dozens of other play¬ wrights. The company disbanded after the stock-market crash of 1929, though the Provincetown Playhouse has continued to serve intermittently as a theatre into the 21st century.

Provisions of Oxford See Provisions of Oxford

Provisors, Statute of (1351) Law passed by the English Parliament during the reign of Edward III. It set up procedures to increase royal con¬ trol over the papal practice of making appointments to church benefices in England, and damaged English relations with the church.

Provo City (pop., 2000: 105,166), north-central Utah, U.S. Situated on the Provo River between Utah Lake and the Wasatch Mountains, it was founded in 1849 by Mormon colonists. Construction of railroads in the 1870s spurred the city’s development as a centre for the mining of silver, lead, copper, and gold. The founding in 1875 of Brigham Young Acad¬ emy (now Brigham Young University) also contributed to Provo’s growth. The city’s industries include steel, canning, electronics, and textiles. Nearby is Timpanogos Cave National Monument.

Proximo Centauri See Alpha Centauri

Prozac First of the class of antidepressant drugs called selective seroto¬ nin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), generic name fluoxetine hydrochloride. Introduced in 1986 as a treatment for clinical depression, Prozac is also used to treat a variety of other psychiatric disorders, including obsessive- compulsive disorder and bulimia nervosa. The drug, taken as a pill, appar¬ ently achieves its therapeutic effect by interfering with the reabsorption of the neurotransmitter serotonin within the brain.

Prudhoe Vpru-do\ Bay Small inlet of the Beaufort Sea, northern Alaska, U.S. It has been the centre of oil-drilling activities since the dis¬ covery in 1968 of vast petroleum deposits on Alaska’s North Slope. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline links the area to Valdez on Prince William Sound.

Prudhomme, Sully See Sully Prudhomme

Prud'hon \prm-'db n \, Pierre-Paul (b. April 4, 1758, Cluny, France—d. Feb. 16, 1823, Paris) French painter. During his years in Rome (1784-88), the works of Correggio inspired him to introduce a softer effect into French painting, then dominated by the austere style of Jacques- Louis David. He made drawings for engravers before he came to the atten¬ tion of Napoleon. His portrait of the empress Josephine (1805) exhibits the seductive and mysterious quality with which he invested his portraits of women. He achieved fame and received the Legion of Honor for his alle¬ gorical Crime Pursued by Divine Vengeance and Justice (1808). His elegant style served as a bridge from late 18th-century Neoclassicism to 19th-century Romanticism.

Prusiner, Stanley (Ben) (b. May 28, 1942, Des Moines, Iowa, U.S.) U.S. neurologist. He earned his M.D. from the University of Pennsylva¬ nia and subsequently taught at UC-San Francisco (1974-84) and UC-Berkeley (from 1984). As a medical resident, he was intrigued by spongiform encephalopathies when a patient died of Creutzfeldt-Jakob dis-

Marcel Proust, oil painting by Jacques- Emile Blanche; in a private collection.

PERMISSION S.P.AD.E.M. 1971 BY FRENCH REPRODUCTION RIGHTS, INC.; PHOTOGRAPH J.E. BULLOZ

Prussia ► psychoanalysis I 1559

ease; he later studied the related sheep disorder scrapie and in 1982 reported isolation of its causative agent, which he called a prion. Initially criticized, his prion theory was eventually generally accepted, and his research received world attention when mad cow disease emerged in Brit¬ ain. The theory may also shed light on disorders such as Alzheimer disease and parkinsonism, which share traits with prion-based diseases. His work won him a 1997 Nobel Prize.

Prussia German Preussen \'prois- 3 n\ In European history, any of three areas of eastern and central Europe. The first was the land of the Prussians on the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea, which came under Polish and German rule in the Middle Ages. The second was the king¬ dom ruled from 1701 by the German Hohenzollern dynasty, including Prussia and Brandenburg, with Berlin as its capital. It seized much of northern Germany and western Poland in the 18th—19th century and united Germany under its leadership in 1871. The third was the state cre¬ ated after the fall of the Hohenzollems in 1918, which included most of their former kingdom and which was abolished by the Allies in 1947 as part of the political reorganization of Germany after its defeat in World War II.

Prynne \'prin\, William (b. 1600, Swainswick, Somerset, Eng.—d. Oct. 24, 1669, London) English Puritan pamphleteer. Trained as a law¬ yer, he published Puritan tracts from 1627 and assailed Anglican ceremo¬ nialism. He attacked popular amusements, especially plays, in his book Histrio Mastix: The Players Scourge (1633). Archbishop William Laud had him imprisoned; after he wrote more pamphlets attacking Laud and other Anglicans, his ears were cut off. Released in 1640, Prynne brought about Laud’s conviction and execution (1645). Elected to Parliament in 1648, he was expelled for attacks on radical Puritans and later imprisoned for refusing to pay taxes (1650-53). Disaffected with Oliver Cromwell’s Com¬ monwealth, he became a supporter of Charles II.

Pryp'yat River See Pripet River

Prypyat s ' River See Pripet River

Przewalski's horse Npsho-'val-skez, .psr-zho-'val-skezX Last wild equine subspecies ( Equus caballus przewalskii) surviving into the 20th century. It is yellowish or light red (dun) and stands 12-14 hands (48-56 in., 122-142 cm) high. It has a dark mane and tail and usually a stripe on the back. The mane is short and erect with no forelock. It was discovered in western Mongolia in the 1870s. The horse disappeared in the wild in the 1960s, but the descen¬ dants of specimens that had earlier been taken to European zoos began to be reintroduced into the Mongo¬ lian steppe in the 1990s.

psalm Vsam\ Sacred song or poem. The term is most widely known from the book of Psalms in the Bible. Its 150 psalms, ranging in subject from songs of joyous faith and thanksgiving to songs of bitter protest and lam¬ entation, rank among the immortal poems of all time. They have had a profound influence on the liturgies of Judaism and Christianity. Their dat¬ ing and authorship are highly problematic, and the tradition of assigning them to King David is no longer accepted. In the original Hebrew text the book had no name. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek (the Septuagint), it was titled Psalterion, referring to a stringed instrument that would accompany such songs.

Pseudo-Demetrius See False Dmitry

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (fl. c. 500) Probably a Syrian monk. Under the pseudonym Dionysius the Areopagite, he wrote a series of treatises that united Neoplatonic philosophy (see Neoplatonism), Chris¬ tian theology, and mystical experience. Their doctrinal content covers the Trinity, the angelic world, and the Incarnation and redemption and pro¬ vides an explanation of all that is. His treatise “On Divine Names” dis¬ cusses the nature and effects of contemplative prayer. The Dionysian corpus was absorbed into Greek and Eastern Christian theologies and also influenced mystics in the Western church. Thomas Aquinas was among those who wrote commentaries on the works.

pseudomonad N.sii-ds-'mo-.nadX Any of a large and varied group of rod-shaped, often curved bacteria. Many can move, propelled by one or more flagella. Some aquatic species are attached to surfaces by long strands or stalks. Most are found in soil or water; some cause diseases in plants, and a few cause serious diseases in humans and other mammals. One very common and widespread species. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is a serious cause of disease in humans, causing antibiotic-resistant infec¬ tions in individuals with weakened resistance. Pseudomonads have been implicated in hospital-acquired infections of surgical wounds and severely burned tissue and in fatal infections of cancer patients treated with immu¬ nosuppressive drugs.

psilomelane V.sI-lo-'me-.lanX Barium and manganese hydrous oxide, BaMnMn 8 0 16 (OH) 4 , an important ore mineral of manganese. What was formerly called psilomelane is now known to be a mixture of several manganese oxides of which romanechite is a major constituent. Such manganese oxide mixtures may form large deposits and may occur in lake or swamp bedded deposits and clays; it has been found in Germany, France, Belgium, Scotland, Sweden, India, and the U.S. The name psi¬ lomelane (from the Greek words for “smooth” and “black”) refers to its typical black, smooth-surfaced, grape-bunch-shaped or stalactitic masses.

psoriasis Vso-'ri-o-sosX Chronic, recurrent skin disorder with reddish, slightly elevated patches or bumps covered with silvery-white scales. Spots may coalesce into large patches around a normal area. If the nails are involved, they may become pitted, thick, and separated from the nail bed. Skin injury, infection, stress, and certain drugs may trigger psoria¬ sis. Skin cells move at an accelerated rate from the dermis into the epi¬ dermis, where they slough off, causing inflammation. In some cases, patients also have arthritis. Psoriasis often becomes less severe in the summer and during pregnancy. There is no cure, but treatment with drugs and ultraviolet light may help.

Psyche Vsl-ke\ In Greek and Roman mythology, a beautiful princess who won Cupid’s love. Her beauty was such that worshipers began to turn away from Venus, and the envi¬ ous goddess commanded her son Cupid to make Psyche fall in love with the most despicable of men. But Cupid himself fell in love with Psyche and hid her in a remote place, where he visited her secretly under cover of darkness. One night she lit a lamp and discovered her lover’s identity. He left angrily, and Psyche wandered the earth searching for him and was captured by Venus. After Cupid rescued Psyche, Jupiter made her immortal and gave her in mar¬ riage to Cupid.

psychiatry Branch of medicine concerned with mental disorders.

Until the 18th century, mental health problems were considered forms of demonic possession; gradually they came to be seen as illnesses requir¬ ing treatment. In the 19th century, research into and classification and treatment of mental illnesses advanced. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory dominated the field for many years before it was challenged by behavioral and cognitive therapy and humanistic psychology in the mid- 20th century. Psychiatrists hold medical degrees and can prescribe drugs and other medical treatments in addition to conducting psychotherapy. The psychiatrist often works as a member of a mental health team that includes clinical psychologists and social workers.

psychoanalysis Method of treating mental disorders that emphasizes the probing of unconscious mental processes. It is based on the psycho¬ analytic theory devised by Sigmund Freud in Vienna in the late 19th and early 20th century. It calls for patients to engage in free association of ideas, speaking to therapists about anything that comes to mind. Dreams and slips of the tongue are examined as a key to the workings of the unconscious mind, and the “work” of therapy is to uncover the tensions existing between the instinctual drive of the id, the perceptions and actions

Psyche, depicted with wings, classical sculpture; in the Louvre, Paris

AUNARI-ART RESOURCE/EB INC.

1560 I psycholinguistics ► Ptah

of the ego, and the censorship imposed by the morality of the superego. Careful attention is paid to early childhood experiences (especially those with a sexual dimension), the memory of which may have been repressed because of guilt or trauma; recalling and analyzing these experiences is thought to help free patients from the anxiety and neuroses caused by repression as well as from more serious illnesses known as psychoses (see neurosis, psychosis). Some of Freud’s early associates, notably Carl Gustav Jung and Alfred Adler, rejected his theories on many points and devised alternative methods of analysis. Other important figures in psychoanaly¬ sis, including Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, and Erich Fromm, accepted the basic Freudian framework but contributed their own additions or modi¬ fications.

psycholinguistics Study of the mental processes involved in the com¬ prehension, production, and acquisition of language. Much psycholin¬ guists work has been devoted to the learning of language by children and on speech processing and comprehension by both children and adults. Traditional areas of research include language production, language com¬ prehension, language acquisition, language disorders, language and thought, and neurocognition. See also linguistics.

psychological development Development of cognitive, emotional, intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course of one’s life. It is the subject matter of the discipline of developmental psy¬ chology. In infancy, language is acquired, perception, emotion, and memory take shape, and learning and motor skills develop. In childhood, speech emerges, cognitive abilities advance from concrete to abstract operations, emotional responses become more sophisticated, and empathy and moral reasoning begin to be employed. Adolescence is a time of rapid emotional and intellectual growth, while adulthood is characterized by the maturing of all developmental processes.

psychological testing Use of tests to measure skill, knowledge, intel¬ ligence, capacities, or aptitudes and to make predictions about perfor¬ mance. Best known is the IQ test; other tests include achievement tests— designed to evaluate a student’s grade or performance level—and personality tests. The latter include both inventory-type (question-and- response) tests and projective tests such as the Rorschach (inkblot) and thematic apperception (picture-theme) tests, which are used by clinical psychologists and psychiatrists to help diagnose mental disorders and by psychotherapists and counselors to help assess their clients. Experimen¬ tal psychologists routinely devise tests to obtain data on perception, learn¬ ing, and motivation. Clinical neuropsychologists often use tests to assess cognitive functioning of people with brain injuries. See also experimental psychology; psychometrics.

psychological warfare Use of propaganda against an enemy, sup¬ ported by whatever military, economic, or political measures are required, and usually intended to demoralize an enemy or to win it over to a dif¬ ferent point of view. It has been carried on since ancient times. The con¬ quests of Genghis Khan were aided by expertly planted rumours about large numbers of ferocious Mongol horsemen in his army. Specialized units were a major part of the German and Allied forces in World War II and the U.S. armed forces in the Korean and Vietnam wars. Strategic psy¬ chological warfare is mass communications directed to a very large audi¬ ence or over a considerable expanse of territory; tactical psychological warfare implies a direct connection with combat operations (e.g., the sur¬ render demand). Consolidation psychological warfare consists of mes¬ sages distributed to the rear of one’s own advancing forces for the sake of protecting the line of communications, establishing military govern¬ ment, and carrying out administrative tasks within such a government.

psychology Scientific discipline that studies mental processes and behaviour in humans and other animals. Literally meaning “the study of the mind,” psychology focuses on both individual and group behaviour. Clinical psychology is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of men¬ tal disorders. Other specialized fields of psychology include child psychol¬ ogy, educational psychology, sports psychology, social psychology, and comparative psychology. The issues studied by psychologists cover a wide spectrum, including learning, cognition, intelligence, motivation, emotion, perception, personality, and the extent to which individual differences are shaped by genetics or environment. The methods used in psychological research include observation, interviews, psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical analysis.

psychometrics Science of psychological measurement. Psychometri¬ cians design and administer psychological tests (see psychological testing).

both to generate empirical data on mental processes and to refine their understanding of measurement techniques and the statistical analysis of results. Major concerns include test reliability and validity and the norm- ing or standardization of results.

psychoneurosis See neurosis psychopathology See abnormal psychology

psychopharmacology Study of the effect of drugs on the mind and behaviour, particularly in the context of developing treatments for men¬ tal disorders. Major psychopharmacological advances in the 20th century include the development of tranquilizers, antidepressants, lithium carbon¬ ate (for bipolar disorder), certain stimulants (including amphetamines), and antipsychotic agents such as chlorpromazine (Thorazine), fluphenazine (Prolixin), and haloperidol (Haldol).

psychophysics Branch of psychology concerned with the effect of physical stimuli (such as sound waves) on mental processes. Psychophys¬ ics was established by Gustav Theodor Fechner in the mid-19th century, and since then its central inquiry has remained the quantitative relation between stimulus and sensation. A key tenet has been Weber's law. Psy¬ chophysical methods are used today in vision research and audiology, psy¬ chological testing, and commercial product comparisons (e.g., tobacco, perfume, and liquor).

psychosis \sI-'ko-s9s\ Serious mental derangement characterized by defective or lost contact with reality. The primary psychoses are schizo¬ phrenia and the delusional disorders (e.g., megalomania), but extreme cases of depression and bipolar disorder, substance-induced delirium, and certain varieties of dementia are also understood to share important fea¬ tures with the psychoses. The major symptoms, aside from delusions and hallucinations, are disorganized speech and behaviour and, often, mood disturbances. Treatment usually consists of medication and counseling in an institutional setting. Compare neurosis.

psychosomatic disorder Bodily ailment or symptom, caused by mental or emotional disturbance, in which psychological stresses adversely affect physiological (somatic) functioning to the point of dis¬ tress. Psychosomatic disorders may include hypertension, respiratory ail¬ ments, gastrointestinal disturbances, migraine and tension headaches, sexual dysfunctions, and dermatitis. Many patients with psychosomatic con¬ ditions respond to a combination of drug therapy and psychotherapy. See also HYPOCHONDRIASIS.

psychosurgery Treatment of psychosis or other mental disorders by means of brain surgery. The first such technique was the prefrontal lobotomy. Fairly common from the 1930s through the 1950s, lobotomy reduced neurotic symptoms such as agitation and aggressiveness but also left patients apathetic and with a limited range of emotions; it has since been largely replaced by the use of tranquilizing and antipsychotic drugs (see psychopharmacology). A form of psychosurgery developed more recently involves the placement of tiny lesions in specific areas of the brain and has little effect on intellectual function or quality of life; it has been used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder and occasionally cases of severe psychosis.

psychotherapy Treatment of psychological, emotional, or behaviour disorders through interpersonal communications between the patient and a trained counselor or therapist. The goal of many modern individual and group therapies is to establish a central relationship of trust in which the client or patient can feel free to express personal thoughts and emotions and thus gain insight into his condition and generally share in the heal¬ ing power of words. Such therapies include psychoanalysis and its variants (see Alfred Adler; Carl Gustav Jung), client-centred or nondirective psycho¬ therapy, Gestalt therapy (see Gestalt psychology), play and art therapy, and general counseling. In contrast, behaviour therapy focuses on modifying behaviour by reinforcement techniques without concerning itself with internal states.

Ptah \'pta\ In Egyptian religion, the creator god. The patron of craftsmen, especially sculptors, Ptah was identified by the Greeks with Hephaestus, the divine blacksmith. He was represented as a man in mummy form, wearing a skullcap and a short, straight false beard. He was originally the local deity of Memphis, capital of Egypt from the 1st dynasty onward; the political importance of Memphis caused Ptah’s cult to spread across Egypt. With Sekhmet and Nefertem, he was one of the Memphite Triad of deities. See photograph on opposite page.

ptarmigan ► public health I 1561

ptarmigan Ytar-mi-gsnV Any of three or four species of grouse (genus Lagopus ) of cold regions. Ptarmigan plumage changes from white in win¬ ter to gray or brown, with barring, in spring and summer. The toes are covered with stiff feathers above and below. The common ptarmigan (L. mutus ) occurs throughout the British Isles, Europe, and North America, where it is called rock ptarmigan. Ptarmigans survive winter in the Arc¬ tic and on mountaintops by browsing shrubs and scratching up lichens and leaves; they burrow in snow to sleep. Males begin group displays in early spring and then separate and display singly in adjoining territories.

Pteranodon Uo-'ra-no-.danX Genus of extinct flying reptiles, descen¬ dants of the pterodactyl. Fossils are known from Late Cretaceous (99-65 million years ago) deposits of Europe, Asia, and North America. Ptera¬ nodon had a wingspan of 23 ft (7 m) or more. The largest specimen had a wingspan of 50 ft (15.5 m). The body was about the size of a modem turkey. Pteranodon had a crest at the back of the skull and long, pelican¬ like, toothless jaws. They probably made nests and spent much time glid¬ ing over the ocean searching for fish. They probably depended on air currents for liftoff rather than on flapping their wings.

pterodactyl \,ter-3-'dak-t 3 l\ Any member of the pterosaur suborder Pterodactyloidea, known from Late Jurassic and Cretaceous fossils (159-65 million years ago) in eastern Africa and Europe. Members of the typical genus, Pterodactylus , ranged from the size of a sparrow to that of an albatross. Pterodactyls had slender, delicate teeth that were angled for¬ ward (possibly for use as straining devices), long metacarpal bones, and a short tail. They were probably able gliders but not efficient as active fliers, and they apparently lacked feathers. Unlike the archaeopteryx, the pterodactyl was not an ancestor of the birds.

pterosaur Vter-o-.sorX Any of several extinct flying reptiles (order Pte- rosauria) that flourished during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (206-65 million years ago). Pterosaurs hung by their long, slender hind limbs when at rest. They soared and glided on fragile, membranous wings that were attached to the long fourth finger of each forelimb and extended along the flank. The first three fingers were slender, clawed, clutching structures. Pterosaurs had a long, slender beak and a large brain. Ram- phorhynchus had strong, sharply pointed teeth, a long tail, and a wing- spread of about 3 ft (1 m). It probably obtained food by diving for fish. See also pterodactyl.

Ptolemais V.ta-b-'ma-osV Ancient coastal city, Cyrenaica. Located in modern Libya, it received its name in the 3rd century bc from Ptolemy

Ptah, holding the emblems of life and power, bronze statuette, Memphis, c. 600-100 bc; in the British Museum.

COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM

III, who united Cyrenaica with Egypt. Its economy was based on trade with the interior, and it flour¬ ished in Hellenistic times, in the early period of the Roman Empire, and again from the late 3rd century ad, when Diocletian made it the metropolis of the Roman province of Upper Libya.

Ptolemy \'ta-b-me\ Latin Clau¬ dius Ptolemaeus (b. c. ad

100—d. c. ad 170) Greek astronomer and mathematician. He worked prin¬ cipally in Alexandria. It is often dif¬ ficult to determine which findings in his great astronomical book, the Almagest, are Ptolemy’s and which are Hipparchus’s. The Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, he believed, were attached to crystalline spheres, cen¬ tred on Earth, which turned to create the cycles of day and night, the lunar month, and so on. In order to explain retrograde motion of the planets, he refined a complex geometric model of cycles within cycles that was highly successful at predicting the planets’ positions in the sky. The Earth-centred Ptolemaic system became dogmatically asserted in Western Christendom until the Sun- centred Copernican system replaced it.

His Geography contained an estimate of the size of Earth, a description of its surface, and a list of places located by latitude and longitude. Ptolemy also dabbled in mechanics, optics, and music theory.

Ptolemy I Soter \ , ta-b-me... , so-t3r\ (b. 367/366, Macedonia—d. 283/ 282 bc, Egypt) Ruler of Egypt (323-285) and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty. A Macedonian general of Alexander the Great, he and the other generals divided the empire after Alexander’s death, Ptolemy becoming satrap of Egypt. Alexander’s successors were soon at war. Ptolemy was defeated in 306 by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, though he and the others rebuffed Antigonus’s attack on Egypt. He earned the name Soter (“Sav¬ iour”) after defeating Antigonus on Rhodes (304), but Antigonus was not finally crushed until 301 at the Battle of Ipsus. Ptolemy secured and expanded his empire through alliances and marriages. He and his fellow kings won a final war (288-286) against Demetrius of Macedonia, freeing Athens from Macedonian occupation. He obtained control of the League of Islanders (including most of the Aegean islands), which formed the basis of Egypt’s maritime supremacy. As king he respected Egyptian cul¬ ture, blended Greek and Egyptian peoples and religions, and founded the Library and Museum of Alexandria. After his death the Egyptians raised him to the level of a god. He was succeeded by his son, Ptolemy II Phila- DELPHUS.

Ptolemy II Philadelphus (b. 308, Cos—d. 246 bc) King of Egypt (285-246 bc), second king of the Ptolemaic dynasty. He reigned as coruler (285-282) with his father, Ptolemy I Soter, then purged his family of rivals, including his first wife, and married his sister, Arsinoe II. Wars with the rulers of the Seleucid and Antigonid dynasties weakened his influence in the Aegean and brought near-disaster to his allies Athens and Sparta. He concluded these wars by diplomacy and marriage alliances and managed to regain his influence in the Aegean. He devised a buffer zone of pos¬ sessions to protect Egypt from attack, and he dealt with reverses through diplomacy. A prudent and enlightened ruler, he promoted economic devel¬ opment and made Alexandria into a centre for poets and scholars.

Ptolemy lll-XV (r. 246-30 bc) Macedonian kings of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Ptolemy III Euergetes (“Benefactor”) (fl. 246-221) defeated the ruler of the Seleucid dynasty in the Third Syrian War (245- 241). Ptolemy IV Philopator (“Father-loving”) (r. 221-205) allowed Egypt to decline under his debauched rule. Ptolemy IX Soter II ruled with his mother (116-110, 109-107), until she expelled him and installed his brother Ptolemy X Alexander (r. 107-88). Alexander’s unpopularity resulted in his expulsion, and he died at sea in 88. Soter II assumed sole rule (88-81), installing his brother’s widow, his own daughter, with him. Ptolemy XI Alexander II (r. 80) was the last fully legitimate Ptolemaic king of Egypt. On the orders of Sulla, whose hostage he had been, he took Ptolemy IX Soter II’s widow as wife and attempted to rule with her. This being unacceptable to the queen, Ptolemy murdered her and took sole power, for which the people of Alexandria killed him; his rule lasted 19 days. Of the remaining Ptolemies, Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II shared power (47-44) with his sister Cleopatra; it was probably she who had him assassinated, to make way for her son by Julius Caesar. Ptolemy XV Caesar, or Caesarion, shared power with his mother from 44; he was killed by Octavian (later Augustus) after Cleopatra’s suicide in 30. His death marked the Roman conquest of Egypt and the dynasty’s end.

puberty In human physiology, the period of first becoming capable of reproducing sexually. Occurring at about age 12 in girls and age 14 in boys, puberty is characterized by the maturing of the genital organs, devel¬ opment of secondary sex characteristics, and, in girls, onset of menstrua¬ tion. Both sexes experience a swift increase in body size and changes in body shape and composition. Puberty marks the beginning of adolescence.

pubic louse See human louse

Public Broadcasting Service See PBS public debt See national debt

public health Science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting health through organized community efforts. These include sanitation, control of contagious infections, hygiene education, early diag¬ nosis and preventive treatment, and adequate living standards. It requires understanding not only of epidemiology, nutrition, and antiseptic prac¬ tices but also of social science. Historical public health measures included quarantine of leprosy victims in the Middle Ages and efforts to improve sanitation following the 14th-century plague epidemics. Population increases in Europe brought with them increased awareness of infant

1562 I public house ► Pucelle

deaths and a proliferation of hospitals. Britain’s Public Health Act of 1848 established a special public health ministry. In the U.S., public health is studied and coordinated on a national level by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; internationally, the World Health Organization plays an equivalent role.

public house or pub Establishment that serves alcoholic beverages for consumption on the premises, especially in Britain. Under English common law, inns and taverns were declared public houses responsible for the well-being of travelers. They were expected to receive all travel¬ ers in reasonable condition who were willing to pay for food, drink, and lodging. In Tudor England, certain innkeepers were obliged by royal act to maintain stables; others served as unofficial postmasters. The early public houses were identified by simple signs that featured creatures such as lions, dolphins, or swans. In the 18th century, the word Arms was added to many pub names to indicate that the establishment was under the pro¬ tection of a noble family. Though British public houses were traditionally owned and operated by independent licensed proprietors, by the early 20th century many were owned or associated with brewery companies.

public relations (PR) Aspect of communications that involves pro¬ moting a desirable image for a person or group seeking public attention. It originated in the U.S. in the early 20th century with pioneers such as Edward L. Bernays and Ivy Ledbetter Lee. Government agencies in Britain and the U.S. soon began hiring publicists to engineer support for their policies and programs, and the public-relations business boomed after World War II. Clients may include individuals such as politicians, per¬ formers, and authors, and groups such as business corporations, govern¬ ment agencies, charities, and religious bodies. The audience addressed may be as narrow as male alternative-music fans between the ages of 21 and 30 or as broad as the world at large. A publicist’s functions include generating favourable publicity and knowing what kind of story is likely to be printed or broadcast. The task is complicated by the variety of exist¬ ing media: besides newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, there are publications of professional associations, direct-mail lists, on-site promo¬ tional events, and so on. It consists largely of optimizing good news and forestalling bad news; if disaster strikes, the publicist must assess the situation, organize the client’s response so as to minimize damage, and marshal and present information to the media.

Public Safety, Committee of See Committee of Public Safety

public school or independent school In the United Kingdom, any of a small group of tuition-charging secondary schools that specialize in preparing students for university and for public service. The name public school dates from the 18th century, when the schools began attracting stu¬ dents from beyond their immediate environs and thus became “public” as opposed to local. Such schools are thus in fact private schools indepen¬ dent of the state system. Although many schools have become coeduca¬ tional, only boys attend the historically important schools Winchester (1394), Eton (1440-41), Westminster (1560), and Harrow (1571); well- known girls’ schools include Cheltenham (1853), Roedean (1885), and Wycomb Abbey (1896). Public schools cultivated a class-conscious code of behaviour, speech, and appearance that set the standard for British offi¬ cialdom from the early 19th century. See also secondary education.

public television See PBS

public transportation See mass transit

public utility Enterprise that provides certain classes of services to the public, including common-carrier transportation (buses, airlines, rail¬ roads); telephone and telegraph services; power, heat and light; and com¬ munity facilities for water and sanitation. In most countries such enterprises are state-owned and state-operated; in the U.S. they are mainly privately owned, but they operate under close regulation. Given the tech¬ nology of production and distribution, they are considered natural monopolies, since the capital costs for such enterprises are large and the existence of competing or parallel systems would be inordinately expen¬ sive and wasteful. Government regulation in the U.S., particularly at the state level, aims to ensure safe operation, reasonable rates, and service on equal terms to all customers. Some states have experimented with deregu¬ lation of electricity and natural-gas operations to stimulate price reduc¬ tions and improved service through competition, but the results have not been universally promising.

Public Works Administration U.S. government agency (1933-39). It was established as part of the New Deal to reduce unemployment

through the construction of highways and public buildings. Authorized by the National Industrial Recovery Act (1933) and administered by Harold Ickes, it spent about $4 billion to build schools, courthouses, city halls, public-health facilities, and roads, bridges, dams, and subways. It was gradually dismantled as the country moved to a military-industrial economy during World War II.

Public Works of Art Project (PWAP) First of the U.S. federal art programs conceived as part of the New Deal during the Great Depression. Organized in 1933, it provided work to thousands of unemployed artists. PWAP projects (many of which were left unfinished) included some 7,000 easel paintings and watercolours, 1,400 murals and sculptures, 2,500 works of graphic art, and numerous other works designated to embellish nonfederal public buildings and parks. Prominent works include the murals in San Francisco’s Coit Memorial Tower, Grant Wood’s mural at Iowa State College, and Ben Shahn’s mural designs on the theme of Pro¬ hibition. Many projects left incomplete when the PWAP ended in 1934 were finished under the WPA Federal Art Project.

publishing Traditionally, the selection, preparation, and distribution of printed matter—including books, newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets. Contemporary publishing includes the production of materials in digital formats such as CD-ROMs, as well as materials created or adapted for electronic distribution. Publishing has evolved from small, ancient, and law- or religion-bound origins into a vast industry that disseminates every kind of information imaginable. In the modern sense of a copying indus¬ try supplying a lay readership, publishing began in Hellenistic Greece, in Rome, and in China. After paper reached the West from China in the 11th century, the central innovation in Western publishing was Johannes Guten¬ berg’s invention of movable type. In the 19th and 20th centuries, techno¬ logical advances, the rise of literacy and leisure, and ever-increasing information needs contributed to an unprecedented expansion of publish¬ ing. Contemporary challenges in publishing include attempts at censor¬ ship, copyright laws and plagiarism, royalties for authors and commissions for literary agents, competitive marketing techniques, pres¬ sures from advertisers affecting editorial independence, acquisition of independent publishing concerns by conglomerates, and the loss of read¬ ers to other media such as television and the Internet.

Pucci Vpti-cheV Emilio, marquess di Barsento (b. Nov. 20, 1914, Naples, Italy—d. Nov. 29, 1992, Florence) Italian fashion designer and politician. He became a designer when a fashion photographer for Vogue noticed his original ski outfit and asked him to design women’s ski clothes. He is best known for his tight shantung “Pucci pants” and viv¬ idly printed silk dresses and blouses. His colourful, less formal uniforms for Braniff flight attendants were the first of their kind. Later he branched into men’s fashions, perfume, and ceramics. He was a member of the Ital¬ ian Parliament (1963-72).

Puccini \pii-'che-ne\, Giacomo (Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria) (b. Dec. 22, 1858, Lucca, Tuscany—d. Nov. 29, 1924, Brussels, Belg.) Italian composer. Bom into a family of organists and choirmasters, he was inspired to write operas after hearing Giuseppe Verdi’s Aida in 1876. At the Milan Conservatory he studied with Amil- care Ponchielli (1834-86). Puccini entered his first opera, Le villi (1883), in a competition; though it lost, a group of his friends subsidized its pro¬ duction, and its premiere took place with immense success. His second, Edgar (1889), was a failure, but Manon Lescaut (1893) brought him international recognition. His mature operas included La Boheme (1896), To sea (1900), Madam Butterfly (1904), and The Girl of the Golden West (1910). All four are tragic love stories; his use of the orchestra was refined, and he established a dramatic structure that balanced action and conflict with moments of repose, contemplation, and lyricism. They remained exceedingly popular into the 21st century. He was the most popular opera composer in the world at the time of his death; his unfinished Turandot was completed by Franco Alfano (1875-1954).

Pucelle \ptB-'sel\, Jean (b. 1300?—d. 1355?) French manuscript illu¬ minator. Little is known of his background, but his large workshop domi¬ nated Parisian painting in the early 14th century, when he enjoyed court patronage and his work commanded high prices. His most celebrated work, the Hours of Jeanne d’Evreux (c. 1325-28), a tiny private prayer book commissioned by the queen, featured numerous drolleries (marginal designs), a style he popularized, and reveals his genius for using sources from Italian and French art to give a playful tone to an essentially religious work.

puddling process ► Pufendorf I 1563

puddling process Method of converting pig iron into wrought iron by subjecting it to heat and frequent stirring in a furnace in the presence of oxidizing substances (see oxidation-reduction). Invented by Henry Cort in 1784 (superseding the finery process), it was the first method that allowed wrought iron to be produced on a large scale.

Puebla State (pop., 2000: 5,076,686), southeast-central Mexico. It cov¬ ers an area of 13,090 sq mi (33,902 sq km), and its capital is Puebla city. It occupies part of the Anahuac Plateau and varies in elevation from 5,000 to 8,000 ft (1,500 to 2,400 m), with fertile valleys formed by the Sierra Madre Oriental. The region has long been densely populated. Pre- Columbian peoples had a highly developed civilization in the area, and there are many archaeological sites. The Spanish made Puebla an eco¬ nomic and religious centre, and since the 19th century it has been an important agricultural and industrial centre.

Puebla in full Puebla de Zaragoza City (pop., 2000: 1,271,673), capital of Puebla state, southeastern Mexico. Founded in 1532, it lies on a plain about 7,100 ft (2,165 m) above sea level in the Sierra Madre Ori¬ ental foothills. Located between Mexico City and Veracruz, it was occu¬ pied by U.S. forces during the Mexican War. Its Spanish colonial architecture is similar to that of the city of Toledo, Spain. The centre of an important agricultural and industrial region, it is also known for its glazed ceramic tiles, glass, and pottery. In 1973 the city was shaken by a severe earthquake.

pueblo (Spanish: “town”) Community of the Pueblo Indians of the south¬ western U.S., consisting of multistoried apartment houses constructed of large adobe blocks beginning c. ad 1000. Freestanding structures up to five stories tall were built around a central court. Each floor is set back from the floor under it; the whole structure resembles a zigzag pyramid, with terraces formed by the rooftops of the level below. Though rooms often have connecting doorways, movement between levels is by means of ladders through holes in the ceilings. Ground-floor rooms, used for storage, have no outside doors. Each pueblo has at least two kivas. Many of the pueblos are still occupied; Acoma pueblo is believed to be the old¬ est continuously inhabited place in the U.S. Some of the largest pueblos are at Taos, Isleta, Laguna, and Zuni. See also cliff dwelling.

Pueblo Incident (1968) Capture of the USS Pueblo , a Navy intelli¬ gence ship, by North Korea off its coast on Jan. 23, 1968. The U.S. ini¬ tiated negotiations with North Korea to secure the release of its 83 crewmen. The resulting agreement allowed the U.S. to publicly disavow the confession the crew had signed while privately admitting its truth; the U.S. also acknowledged the ship’s intrusion into North Korean waters and agreed not to undertake similar intelligence gathering activities in the future. An inquiry into the crew’s confession and the conduct of the ship’s commander produced no apparent disciplinary action.

Pueblo Indian Any of the historic descendants of the prehistoric Ana- sazi peoples who have for centuries lived in settled pueblos in what is now northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. The contemporary pueblos are divided into eastern and western. The eastern group includes settlements along the Rio Grande in New Mexico (most notably Taos Pueblo), while the western group includes the Hopi villages of northeast¬ ern Arizona and the Zuni, Acoma, and Laguna villages of northwestern New Mexico. The original Pueblo culture was characterized by both agri¬ culture and the hunting of deer and antelope. Today agriculture predomi¬ nates. Modern Pueblo social life centres on the village. Pueblo Indians have retained their pre-Spanish way of life to a surprising degree. Even though they have added to their inventory of material goods, the basic fabric of the Pueblo social system, community of organization and native religion, with modifications only of detail, has survived.

Pueblo pottery One of the most highly developed of the Native American arts. Pueblo pots, made only by women of the tribe, are con¬ structed of long “sausages” of clay that are coiled upward and then smoothed out. Designs include geometric, floral, and animal patterns. The method was developed during the Classical Pueblo period (c. 1050-1300) and is still being used today. See photograph above.

Puente Vpwen-ta\, Tito orig. Ernesto Antonio Puente, Jr. (b.

April 20, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 31, 2000, New York City) U.S. bandleader, percussionist, and composer. Born to Puerto Rican par¬ ents, Puente served in the Navy during World War II and later studied at Juilliard. In the late 1940s he formed his own band and rose to promi¬ nence with the salsa, mambo, merengue, and cha-cha-cha fads of the 1950s.

Pottery made by the Pueblo Indians (Left) Acoma waterjar, 1890, (centre) Santa Clara vase, c. 1880, (right) San lldefonso waterjar, 1906; in the Denver Art Museum, Colo.

COURTESY OF THE DENVER ART MUSEUM, DENVER, COLO.

Always experimenting, he became a pioneer of Latin-jazz fusion. His compositions include “Pare Cochero” and “Oye Como Va.” He performed with many artists, especially Celia Cruz, and he recorded more than 100 albums. He also performed in several films, including Radio Days (1987) and The Mambo Kings (1992).

puerperal Vpyii-'or-po-roL fever or childbed fever Infection of the female reproductive system after childbirth or abortion, with fever over 100 °F (38 °C) in the first 10 days. The inner surface of the uterus is most often infected, but lacerations of any part of the genital tract can give bac¬ teria (often Streptococcus pyogenes ) access to the bloodstream and lym¬ phatic system to cause septicemia, cellulitis (cellular inflammation), and pelvic or generalized peritonitis. Severity varies. Puerperal fever has become very rare in developed countries but is still seen after abortions performed in unhygienic surroundings.

Puerto Rico officially Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Self- governing island commonwealth of the West Indies, in the northeastern Caribbean Sea; it is associated with the U.S. Area: 3,515 sq mi (9,104 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 3,912,000. Capital: San Juan. Most of the population is of Spanish descent, with significant minorities of people of African and mixed (African-European) descent. Languages: Spanish, English (both official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: U.S. dollar. The island of Puerto Rico may be divided into three geographic regions: the mountainous interior, the northern plateau, and the coastal plains. It has a developing free- market economy, of which manufacturing, financial services, and trade (mostly with the U.S.) are the main components. Tourism is also an impor¬ tant source of income. Puerto Rico’s chief of state is the U.S. president, and its head of government is the commonwealth governor. The island was inhabited by Arawak Indians when it was settled by the Spanish in the early 16th century. It remained largely undeveloped economically until the late 18th century. After 1830 it gradually developed a plantation economy based on the export crops of sugarcane, coffee, and tobacco. The independence movement began in the late 19th century, and Spain ceded the island to the U.S. in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. In 1917 Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship, and in 1952 the island became a commonwealth with autonomy in internal affairs. Voters reaf¬ firmed the island’s commonwealth status in plebiscites in 1967, 1993, and (tacitly) 1998, but Puerto Rican statehood remained a political issue into the 21st century.

Puerto Vallarta Vpwer-to-ba-'yar-ta\ City (pop., 2000: 151,432), west-central Mexico. It is situated on Banderas Bay, in the Pacific coastal lowland, south of the mouth of the Ameca River. The major port of Jalisco state, it exports bananas, coconut oil, hides, and fine woods. It is also an international tourist resort, known for aquatic sports, fishing (especially for sharks), and hunting.

Pufendorf Vpii-fon-.dorfV Samuel, baron von (b. Jan. 8, 1632, Dorfchemnitz, near Thalheim, Saxony—d. Oct. 13, 1694, Berlin) German jurist and historian. The son of a pastor, he left the study of theology for jurisprudence, philosophy, and history. He taught at the Universities of Heidelberg (1661-68) and Lund (1670-77). His Elements of Universal Jurisprudence (1660) and Of the Law and Nature of Nations (1672), which were influenced by Hugo Grotius and Thomas Hobbes, departed from the traditional approach of the medieval theologians to natural law in arguing that there is no such creature as a natural slave—that all men have a right to equality and freedom. His views were attacked by conservative Protestant theologians in Sweden and Germany, and Gottfried Wilhelm

1564 I puffball ► Pulitzer Prize

Leibniz dismissed him as “a man not a lawyer and scarcely a philosopher at all.” Nevertheless, he was protected by the Swedish government, and he became the official historiographer to Charles XI of Sweden (1677-88) and to the elector of Brandenburg (1688-94).

puffball Any of various fungi (see fungus) in the order Lycoperdales of the class Basidiomycetes, found in soil or on decaying wood in grassy areas and woods. Puffballs are named for the fact that puffs of spores are released when the dry and powdery tissues of the mature spherical fruit¬ ing body (basidiocarp) are disturbed. Many are edible before maturity.

puffer or blowfish Any of about 90 species (family Tetraodontidae) of fishes that, when disturbed, inflate themselves into a globular shape with air or water. Most species occur in warm and temperate seas world¬ wide; some occur in brackish or fresh water. Puffers have tough, usu¬ ally prickly, skin; their fused teeth form a beaklike structure, split in the center of each jaw. The largest grow to 3 ft (90 cm) long, but most are considerably smaller. Though they contain a lethal toxin, they are some¬ times eaten, especially in Japan, where puffers (called fugu) are prepared by a specially trained chef.

puffin or sea parrot Any of three species (family Alcidae) of diving birds with a large, brightly coloured, triangular beak. Puffins nest in large colonies on seaside and island cliffs.

Both parents carry up to 10 fish crosswise in the bill to the nest (a deep burrow); they feed the single chick for about six weeks. They then leave, and the chick waits alone for its flight feathers to grow, living on stored fat, and then flies out to sea by itself. The common, or Atlantic, puf¬ fin (Fratercula arctica) is about 12 in. (30 cm) long. The Pacific species are the homed puffin ( F. corniculata ) and the tufted puffin (Limda cir- rhata).

pug Breed of toy dog that probably originated in China. Dutch traders brought it to England in the late 17th century. Squarely built and muscular, the pug has a short muzzle, tightly curled tail, large head, prominent eyes, and small, drooping ears. It stands 10-11 in. (26-28 cm) and weighs about 13-18 lbs (6-8 kg). Its short, glossy coat can be black, sil¬ ver, or apricot fawn; there is a black mask on the face. Loyal and alert, pugs are valued as companions.

Pugachov V.pii-go-'choA, Yeme¬ lyan (Ivanovich) (b. c. 1742,

Zimoveyskaya-na-Donu, Russia—d.

Jan. 21, 1775, Moscow) Russian Cossack leader. He fought in the Russian army (1763-70), then wan¬ dered among settlements of the dis¬ sident Old Beuevers. Learning of Cossack discontent after their unsuccessful rebellion in 1772, he claimed to be Tsar Peter III and decreed the abolition of serfdom. Vowing to depose Catherine II, he gathered a large following of Cossacks and peasants in the Ural region. After initial victories against the Russian army, he was defeated, captured, and executed.

Puget Vpuj-'zheX, Pierre (b. Oct. 16, 1620, at or near Marseille, France—d. Dec. 2, 1694, Marseille) French sculptor, painter, and archi¬ tect. As a young man he was employed by Pietro da Cortona to work on the ceiling decorations of the Pitti Palace in Florence. Thereafter he

worked chiefly in France as a painter and sculptor. While his work is in the tradition of Roman Baroque, such sculptures as Milo of Crotona (c. 1671-82), in which the athlete is attacked by a lion while his hand is caught in a tree stump, show a strain and anguish that suggest the works of Michelangelo.

Puget Vpyti-jotX Sound Arm of the Pacific Ocean indenting northwest¬ ern Washington, U.S. It was explored by the British navigator George Vancouver in 1792 and named by him for Peter Puget, a second lieuten¬ ant in his expedition, who probed the main channel. It has many deep¬ water harbours, including Seattle, Tacoma, Everett, and Port Townsend, which are shipping ports for the rich farmlands along the river estuaries. It provides a sheltered area for recreational boating and salmon fishing.

Puglia \'pii-lya\ or Apulia \a-'pu-lya\ Autonomous regione, southeast¬ ern Italy. It is located between the Adriatic Sea, the Apennines, and the Gulf of Taranto. It was ruled in the early Middle Ages by Goths, Lom¬ bards, and Byzantines and achieved its greatest glory under the Hohen- staufen emperors, especially the 13th-century Holy Roman emperor Frederick II. In 1861 it became part of the Italian kingdom. The region is predominantly agricultural. Wheat, barley, and oats are grown on the plain and in the more fertile parts of the plateaus, while olives, grapes, almonds, figs, and vegetables predominate farther south; tobacco is a specialty of the Lecce Plain. The wines of Puglia are the strongest in Italy and are used to fortify other, lighter varieties. There are chemical and petrochemi¬ cal industries in Bari and iron and steel plants in Taranto. The capital of Puglia (pop., 2001 prelim.: 3,983,487) is Bari; the region has an area of 7,470 sq mi (19,348 sq km).

Pugwash Conferences Series of international meetings of eminent scientists to discuss problems of nuclear weapons and world security. The first meeting was held in 1957 at the estate of Cyrus Eaton in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. The Pugwash organization was established to convene sub¬ sequent conferences to discuss arms control and disarmament; these were held in the Soviet Union, Britain, India, and the U.S., among other coun¬ tries. The organization and its president and founding member, Joseph Rotblat (born 1908), received the 1995 Nobel Prize for Peace.

puja \'pii-ja\ In Hinduism, a form of ceremonial worship. It may range from brief daily rites in the home to an elaborate temple ritual. A typical puja offers the image of a deity the honours accorded to a royal guest. The god is gently roused from sleep, ritually bathed and dressed, served three meals during the day, and ceremonially put to bed. Rituals may also include a sacrifice and oblation to the sacred fire. Some pujas are per¬ formed by the worshiper alone; others require a ritually pure person. A puja may be performed for a specific purpose or simply as an act of devo¬ tion.

Pukaskwa \pu-'kas-kw3\ National Park National park, central Ontario, Canada. Established in 1971, it is Ontario’s largest national park, covering 725 sq mi (1,878 sq km). It includes areas of rugged Canadian Shield wilderness as well as 50 mi (80 km) of the shoreline of northeast¬ ern Lake Superior, with rocky islets and coves and spectacular cliffs. Excavations of prehistoric Indian remains have been made. Wildlife includes timber wolf, black bear, mink, lynx, white-tailed deer, moose, and woodland caribou. The park has vast forests of white and black spruce, jack pine, poplar, and birch.

Pulcher, Publius Clodius See Publius Clodius Pulcher

Pulitzer Vpii-lot-soA, Joseph (b. April 10, 1847, Mako, Hung.—d. Oct. 29, 1911, Charleston, S.C., U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. newspaper editor and publisher. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1864 to serve in the American Civil War. After the war he became a reporter and then propri¬ etor at German-language newspapers in St. Louis and entered Missouri politics. In 1878 he merged the St. Louis Dispatch (founded 1864) and the Post (founded 1875) into the Post-Dispatch, which soon became the city’s dominant evening newspaper. Shifting his interests to New York City, he purchased the World (1883) and founded the Evening World (1887). He helped establish the pattern of the modern newspaper by com¬ bining exposes of political corruption and crusading investigative report¬ ing with publicity stunts, self-advertising, and sensationalism. In his will he endowed the Columbia University School of Journalism and estab¬ lished the Pulitzer Prizes.

Pulitzer Prize Vpu-lot-sor, 'pyii-bt-sorX Any of a series of annual prizes awarded by Columbia University for outstanding public service and achievement in American journalism, letters, and music. Fellowships are

Puffer [Arothron stellatus).

DOUGLAS FAULKNER

Common puffin (Fratercula arctica)

BEN GOLDSTEIN-ROOT RESOURCES

Pug.

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

pulley ► pumpkin I 1565

also awarded. The prizes, originally endowed with a gift of $500,000 from Joseph Pulitzer, are highly esteemed and have been awarded each May since 1917 on the recommendation of the Pulitzer Prize Board, composed of judges appointed by the university. The numbers and categories of prizes have varied over the years. Today they include 14 awards in jour¬ nalism, six in letters, one in music, and four fellowships.

pulley In mechanics, a wheel that carries a flexible rope, cord, cable, chain, or belt on its rim. Pulleys are used singly or in combination to transmit energy and motion. In belt drives, pulleys are attached to shafts at their axes, and power is transmitted between the shafts by means of end¬ less belts running over the pulleys. One or more independently rotating pulleys can be used to gain mechanical advantage, especially for lifting weights. The shafts around which the pulleys turn may attach them to frames or blocks, and a combination of pulleys, blocks, and rope is called a block and tackle. The pulley is considered one of the five simple machines.

Pullman, George M(ortimer) (b. March 3, 1831, Brocton, N.Y.,

U. S.—d. Oct. 19, 1897, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. industrialist. He moved to Chicago as a young man and worked as a cabinetmaker for his brother. In 1858 he remodeled two day coaches for a local railroad company into sleeping coaches; eventually he set up his own firm, and the first true Pullman sleeping car appeared in 1865. Becoming wealthy from his invention, in 1867 he founded the Pullman Palace Car Company; the next year he created the first dining car. In 1880 he built the town of Pullman (now incorporated into Chicago) for its workers; a much-discussed social experiment, the town was also the scene of the famous Pullman Strike of

Pullman Strike (May 11-c. July 20, 1894) Massive railroad strike in the U.S. After financial reversals caused the Pullman Palace Car Co. to cut wages by 25%, local union members called a strike. The company’s president, George Pullman, refused arbitration, and union president Eugene

V. Debs called for a nationwide boycott of Pullman cars. Sympathy strikes followed in 27 states. Violence broke out in Chicago, Ill., but Gov. John Peter Altgeld refused to intervene. The U.S. attorney general, Richard Olney, obtained an injunction against the strikers for impeding the mail service, and federal troops were called in. Debs’s conviction for conspir¬ ing against interstate commerce established that the Sherman Antitrust Act could be enforced against labour-unions.

pulmonary alveolus Vpul-mo-.ner-e-al-'ve-s-tasV Any of the 300 million or so small air spaces in the lungs where carbon dioxide leaves the blood and oxygen enters it. Alveoli form clusters (alveolar sacs) con¬ nected by alveolar ducts to the bronchioles. Their thin walls contain numerous capillaries, supported by a mesh of elastic and collagenous fibres; gas exchange between them occurs by diffusion. A film of fatty substances (surfactant) over the walls reduces surface tension, keeping the alveoli from collapsing and making it easier to expand the lungs. Alveolar macrophages (see leukocyte; lymphoid tissue) act as mobile scav¬ engers, engulfing foreign particles in the lungs.

pulmonary heart disease or cor pulmonale \,kor-pul-m3- 'nal-e\ Enlargement and eventual failure of the right ventricle of the heart due to disorders of the lungs or their blood vessels or chest wall abnor¬ malities. Chronic disease is most often caused by chronic bronchitis or emphysema. Symptoms include chronic cough, trouble in breathing after exertion, wheezing, weakness, leg edema, right upper abdominal pain, and neck vein distension. Pressure in the pulmonary artery rises and the right ventricle enlarges in response, leading, if uncorrected, to heart failure. Treatment includes a respirator, low-sodium diet, diuretics, digitalis, and antibiotics for respiratory infection. Acute disease due to pulmonary embo¬ lism is often treated by removal of the blockage.

pulsar in full pulsating radio star Any of a class of cosmic objects that appear to emit extremely regular pulses of radio waves. A few give off short rhythmic bursts of visible light, X rays, and gamma radiation as well. Thought to be rapidly spinning neutron stars, they were discovered by Antony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967 with a specially designed radio telescope. More than 550 have been detected since. All behave similarly, but the intervals between pulses (and thus their rotation periods) range from one-thousandth of a second to four seconds. Charged particles from the surface enter the star’s magnetic field, which acceler¬ ates them so that they give off radiation, released as intense beams from the magnetic poles. These do not coincide with the pulsar’s own axis of rotation, so as the star spins, the radiation beams swing around like light¬ house beams and are seen as pulses. Pulsars have been shown to be slow¬

ing down, typically by a millionth of a second per year. It has been calculated that pulsars “switch off” after about 10 million years, when their magnetic fields weaken enough.

A pulsar emits two beams of electromagnetic radiation along its magnetic axis. If the magnetic axis is offset from the rotational axis, the beams will sweep out circu¬ lar paths as the star rotates, instead of remaining in one position. An observer in the path of such a beam will thus detect a periodic pulse of radiation as the beam sweeps by.

pulse Pressure wave in the arteries from contraction of the heart. It can be felt where arteries are near the skin’s surface; it is usually read at the carotid artery in the neck or at the wrist. Its rate, strength, and rhythm and the contour of the wave provide valuable information but must be viewed in context (e.g., rapid pulse occurs with serious heart disease, simple fever, or vigorous exercise). The average adult pulse rate is 70-80 beats per minute; the rate decreases with age and is generally faster in women.

puma See cougar

pumice Vpo-mosV Very porous, frothlike volcanic glass that has long been used as an abrasive in cleaning, polishing, and scouring compounds. It is also used in precast masonry units, poured concrete, insulation and acoustic tile, and plaster. Pumice is igneous rock that cooled so rapidly there was no time for it to crystallize. When it solidified, the vapours dis¬ solved in it were suddenly released, and the whole mass swelled up into a froth that immediately consolidated. Any type of lava may become pumiceous under favourable conditions.

pump Machine that uses energy to raise, transport, or compress fluids. Pumps are classified by how they transfer energy to the fluid. The basic methods are volume displacement, addition of kinetic energy, and use of electromagnetic force. Pumps in which displacement is accomplished mechanically are called positive displacement pumps. Kinetic pumps pass kinetic energy to the fluid by means of a rapidly rotating impeller (blade). To use electromagnetic force, the fluid being pumped must be a good electrical conductor. Pumps used to transport or pressurize gases are called compressors, blowers, or fans.

pumpkin Fruit of certain varieties of Cucurbita pepo or C. moschata, of the gourd family. In the U.S., the thick-growing, small-fruited bush, or nontrailing, varieties of C. pepo are called squash, and the long-season, long-trailing, large-fruited varieties are called pumpkin. Pumpkins pro¬ duce very long vines and large (9-18 lb [4-8 kgj), globe-shaped, orange fruits. Giant and miniature varieties are available. The usually lightly fur¬ rowed or ribbed rind is smooth, and the fruit stem is hard and woody. Pumpkins mature in early autumn and can be stored for a few months in

1566 I Punch ► puppetry

a dry, warm place. They are commonly grown in North America, Britain, and Europe for human food and livestock feed. In Europe pumpkin is served mainly as a vegetable; in the U.S. and Canada pumpkin pie is a traditional Thanksgiving and Christmas dessert. Pumpkins are used in the U.S. for Halloween decorations.

Punch Hooknosed, humpbacked character in marionette and puppet shows (see puppetry). Adapted from a stock character of the commedia dell'arte, the puppet character was taken to France and England by Ital¬ ian puppeteers in the 1660s. By 1700 every English puppet show featured Punch (from Punchinello) and his wife, Judy. As marionettes became less popular in the 1790s, smaller glove puppets were used in the popular Punch-and-Judy play. The hooked nose and the brutal, vindictive, and deceitful behaviour of the English Punch were established characteristics by the 19th century. In France his popularity declined during the 19th and 20th centuries, and he disappeared there as a comic figure. Puppeteers in England have carried on the tradition of Punch-and-Judy shows.

Punch English illustrated periodical published 1841-1992 and revived in 1996 with a revised format. Initially a weekly radical paper, it became famous for its satiric humour, caricatures, and cartoons. Among its famous early staff members were William Thackeray and John Tenniel. A cover drawing by Richard Doyle was used continuously from 1849 to 1956, when each issue’s cover was made different, though the traditional fig¬ ures of Punch and his dog Toby usually appeared somewhere.

punch press Machine tool that changes the size or shape of a piece of material, usually sheet metal, by applying pressure to a die in which the workpiece is held. The form and construction of the die determine the shape produced on the workpiece. A punch press has two components: the punch, which is attached to the reciprocating (back and forth, or up and down) ram (plunger) of the machine; and the die, which is clamped onto a bed or anvil whose flat surface is perpendicular to the path of the ram. The punch pushes against the workpiece, which is held in the die. Punch presses are usually driven by electric motors. See also hydraulic PRESS.

punctuation Standard set of marks used in written and printed texts to clarify meaning and to separate sentences, words, and parts of words. It often marks discourse features such as intonational contours and pauses. It may also convey information about a word (e.g., hyphens in compound words) unrelated to speech patterns. In English, the period (.) marks the end of a sentence or an abbreviation. The comma (,) usually separates clauses, phrases, or items in a series. The colon (:) often introduces an explanation or series of examples. The semicolon (;) usually separates independent clauses. The em-dash (—) marks an abrupt transition. The exclamation point (!) signals surprise. The question mark (?) signals a question. The apostrophe (’) marks the possessive case or the omission of letters. Quotation marks (“ ”) set off either quoted words or words used _ with special significance. Interpolations in a sentence are marked by

brackets ([ ]) or parentheses ().

Punctation of Olmutz See Olmiitz, Punctation of

Pune Vpii-noV formerly Poona City (pop., 2001 prelim.: city, mm 2,540,069; metro, area, 3,755,525), western India. Called “Queen of the

U Deccan,” it is the cultural capital of the Maratha peoples (see Maratha

confederacy). It first gained importance as the capital of the Bhonsle Mar- athas in the 17th century. Temporarily captured by the Mughals, it again became the Maratha capital from 1714 until 1817, when it fell to the Brit¬ ish. It served as the seasonal capital of the Bombay presidency, and its mild weather has made it a popular tourist resort. It is a major educational centre and headquarters of the Indian army’s southern command; it is ringed by a sprawling complex of industrial suburbs.

Punic Wars Vpyii-nik\ or Carthaginian Wars Three wars (264- 241 bc, 218-201, 149-146) between Rome and Carthage. The first con¬ cerned control of Sicily and of the sea lanes in the western Mediterranean; it ended with Rome victorious but with great loss of ships and men on both sides. In 218 Hannibal attacked Roman territory, starting from Spain and marching overland into Italy with troops and elephants. After an ini¬ tial Carthaginian victory, Fabius Maximus Cunctator harassed him wher¬ ever he went without offering battle. Abandoning this tactic resulted in a major Roman loss at the Battle of Cannae (216); that defeat drew the Romans together and, though worn down, they managed to rally, even¬ tually defeating Hannibal and driving him out of Italy (203). The Third Punic War was essentially the siege of Carthage; it led to the destruction

of Carthage, the enslavement of its people, and Roman hegemony in the western Mediterranean. The Carthaginian territory became the Roman province of Africa.

Punjab \,p9n-'jab\ State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 24,289,296), northwestern India. Bordered by Pakistan and the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan, it occupies an area of 19,445 sq mi (50,362 sq km). The city of Chandigarh is the joint administrative capital of Punjab and Haryana. In the 18th century the Sikhs (see Sikhism) built a powerful kingdom in the Punjab, which came under British rule in 1849. In 1947 the area was split between the new nations of India and Pakistan, the smaller eastern portion going to India. It is the only Indian state with a majority of Sikhs. Hindus make up about one-third of the population, and there are smaller minorities of Christians, Jains, and Muslims. The economy is based on agriculture and small- and medium-scale industry.

Punjabi \,p9n-ja-be\ language or Panjabi language Indo-Aryan language of the Punjab in India and Pakistan. Punjabi has about 26 mil¬ lion speakers in India and more than 60 million in Pakistan—nearly half the population of the latter—but linguists have sometimes considered the dialects of southwestern, western, and northern Punjab province in Paki¬ stan a different language. Inhabitants of southern Punjab province have agitated for consideration of their speech, Siraiki (with more than 12 mil¬ lion speakers), as a distinct language, though Siraiki and Punjabi are mutually intelligible.

punk Aggressive form of rock music that coalesced into an international (though predominantly Anglo-American) movement in 1975-80. Origi¬ nating in the countercultural rock of artists such as the Velvet Under¬ ground and Iggy (Pop) and the Stooges, punk rock evolved in New York City in the mid-1970s with artists such as Patti Smith and the Ramones. It soon took root in London—where distinctly “punk” fashions, includ¬ ing spiked hair and ripped clothing, were popularized—with bands such as the Sex Pistols and the Clash, and later in California, with X, Black Flag, and the Dead Kennedys. It is often marked by a fast, aggressive beat, loud guitar with abrupt chord changes, and nihilistic lyrics. Variants include new wave (more pop-oriented and accessible) and hardcore (char¬ acterized by brief, harsh songs played at breakneck speed); the latter con¬ tinued to thrive through the 1990s.

Punnett Vp3n-9t\, Reginald Crundall (b. June 20, 1875, Tonbridge, Kent, Eng.—d. Jan. 3, 1967, Bilbrook, Somerset) British geneticist. Through contact with William Bateson he came to support the theories of Gregor Mendel, and in 1905 he published the first textbook on Mende- lian genetics. Using poultry and sweet peas, Punnett and Bateson discov¬ ered some of the fundamental processes of Mendelian genetics, including linkage, sex determination, sex linkage, and the first example of nonsexual chromosome linkage. Punnett demonstrated the value of using sex-linked plumage-colour factors to distinguish male from female chickens, mak¬ ing possible early identification of the less valuable males, a process now known as autosexing.

Punt \'punt\ In ancient Egyptian and Greek geography, the southern coast of the Red Sea and adjacent coasts of the Gulf of Aden, corresponding to modern coastal Ethiopia and Djibouti. Visited by Egyptian expeditions as early as 2200 bc, it was a place of ancient legend and fable and Egypt’s source for incense, ivory, and ostrich feathers. During the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, an expedition was sent to Punt, and the queen had the details of the journey recorded on the walls of the Deir el-Bahri temple near Thebes. Only in the late 4th century bc were the trade routes to Punt opened to the Greeks.

pupa \'pyii-p9\ Inactive, nonfeeding stage in the life of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis. In a protective covering (cocoon or chrysalis), the larva is transformed into an adult. During pupation, a pro¬ cess controlled by hormones, larval structures break down and adult struc¬ tures form; wings appeal - for the first time. The adult emerges either by splitting the pupal skin and chewing its way out or by secreting a fluid that softens the cocoon.

puppetry Art of creating and manipulating puppets in a theatrical show. Puppets are figures that are moved by human rather than mechanical aid. They may be controlled by one or several puppeteers, who are screened from the spectators. Varieties include glove (or hand) puppets, rod pup¬ pets, shadow puppets, and marionettes (or string puppets). Puppetry had its beginnings in tribal society and has been part of every civilization. By the 18th century it was so popular in Europe that permanent theatres were

Purace National Park ► Purus River I 1567

built for the usually itinerant puppeteers. Companies presented favourite stories of the French Guignol, the Italian Arlecchino, the German Kasperle, and the English Punch and Judy. By the mid 20th century pup¬ petry had reached television with Jim Henson’s Muppets. See also bun- raku; Sergey Obraztsov.

Purace \,pu-ra-'sa\ National Park National park, southwestern Colombia. Established in 1961, its main feature is the active Purace Vol¬ cano, which is located just southeast of the city of Popayan and reaches an elevation of 15,603 ft (4,756 m). The park covers 320 sq mi (830 sq km) and is home to the spectacled bear and the pudu, a small deer that is about 12 inches (30 cm) tall.

Purana \pu-Ta-no\ In Hinduism, an encyclopaedic collection of myth, legend, and genealogy. A Purana traditionally treats five subjects: primary creation of the universe, secondary creation after periodic annihilation, genealogy of gods and saints, grand epochs, and histories of the royal dynasties. Written in narrative couplets, the Purana s date from c. 400 to c. 1000. The 18 principal surviving Puranas are grouped according to whether they exalt Vishnu, Shiva, or Brahma. Most popular is the Bhaga- vata Purana, which treats the early life of Krishna.

Purari River River, eastern central New Guinea. Rising in the central highlands of Papua New Guinea, it flows about 290 mi (470 km) to the Gulf of Papua of the Coral Sea. Its lower course divides into five main channels that lace through a well-settled swampy delta. It is navigable for about 120 mi (190 km). Although found and partially charted in 1887, the river system was not fully traced until the 1930s.

Purcell Vpor-soL, Henry (b. c. 1659, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 21, 1695, London) British composer. Little is known of his origins, but he was in the Chapel Royal choir from boyhood, and he probably studied with Pelham Humfrey (1647-74) and John Blow (1649-1708). His first known compo¬ sition was written at age eight. When his voice changed, he assisted in keeping the royal instruments in repair and tuning the Westminster Abbey organ. He became organist there in 1679 and at the Chapel Royal in 1682. He wrote music in a number of genres. His opera Dido and Aeneas (1689) is notable for achieving a high degree of dramatic intensity within a narrow framework. This he followed with the “semi-operas” King Arthur (1691), The Fairy Queen (1692), and The Indian Queen (1695). He also wrote much incidental music, some 250 songs, 12 fantasias for viol consort, and many anthems and services. He is regarded as the greatest English com¬ poser after William Byrd and before the 20th century.

purdah Seclusion of women from public observation by means of con¬ cealing clothing (including the veil) and walled enclosures as well as screens and curtains within the home. The custom seems to have origi¬ nated in Persia and was adopted by Muslims during the Arab conquest of what is now Iraq in the 7th century. The Muslim domination of northern India led to its adoption by the Hindu upper classes, but it was discarded by Hindus after the end of British rule in India. The custom of purdah still continues in many Islamic countries.

pure culture In microbiology, laboratory culture containing a single species of organism. A pure culture is usually derived from a mixed cul¬ ture (containing many species) by methods that separate the individual cells so that, when they multiply, each will form an individually distinct colony, which may then be used to establish new cultures with the assur¬ ance that only one type of organism will be present. Pure cultures may be more easily isolated if the growth medium of the original mixed cul¬ ture favours the growth of one organism to the exclusion of others.

Pure Land Buddhism Devotional cult of the buddha Amitabha. It is one of the most popular forms of Mahayana Buddhism in East Asia today. Pure Land schools believe that rebirth in the Western Paradise (the Pure Land) is given to all those who invoke Amitabha’s name with sincere devotion. In China the Pure Land cult can be traced back to the 4th cen¬ tury, when the scholar Huiyuan (333—416) formed a society of monks and laymen who meditated on the name of Amitabha. His successors system¬ atized and spread the doctrine in the 6th-7th century. The Pure Land teaching was transmitted to Japan by monks of the Tiantai school.

purgatory In Roman Catholic doctrine, the condition of those who have died in a state of grace but have not been purged of sin. These remaining sins include unforgiven venial sins or forgiven mortal sins. Souls burdened by such sins must be purified before entering heaven. The church also teaches that souls in purgatory may be aided by efforts of the living faithful through prayers, almsgiving, indulgences, and other works.

The existence of purgatory has been denied as unbiblical by Protestant churches and most Eastern Orthodox churches.

purge trials Soviet trials of critics of Joseph Stalin. After the assassina¬ tion of Sergey Kirov, prominent Bolsheviks were accused of conspiracy to remove Stalin from power. In three widely publicized show trials (1936— 38), which presented confessions obtained under torture or fabricated by the secret police, the accused were found guilty and executed or sent to prison. Numerous closed, unpublicized trials of Soviet military leaders were also held and resulted in a massive purge throughout the armed forces. The trials eliminated such potential rivals and critics of Stalin as Nikolay Bukharin, Lev Kamenev, Aleksey Rykov, Mikhayl Tukhachevsky, Genrikh Yagoda, and Grigory Zinovyev but earned worldwide condemnation.

Purim Vpur-im, pu-'rem\ Jewish festival celebrating the survival of the Jews marked for death in Persia in the 5th cent bc. According to the Book of Esther, Haman, chief minister of King Ahasuerus, planned a general massacre of the Jews and set the date by casting lots. Ahasuerus’ wife Esther interceded for the Jews, and they were allowed to attack their enemies. The ritual observance begins with a day of fasting on the 13th of Adar (in February or March), the day before the actual holiday. The Book of Esther is read in the synagogue, and Jews are enjoined to exchange gifts and make donations to the poor. Purim is a day of mer¬ rymaking and feasting.

purine \'pyur-,en\ Any of a class of heterocyclic compounds with a two- ring structure composed of carbon and nitrogen atoms. The simplest mem¬ ber, purine itself (C 5 H 4 N 4 ), is not common, but its derivatives with the structure are. Examples are uric acid, caffeine, and two of the nucleotides in NUCLEIC ACIDS, GUANINE and ADENINE.

Puritan Revolution See English Civil Wars

Puritanism Movement in the late 16th and 17th century that sought to “purify” the Church of England, leading to civil war in England and to the founding of colonies in North America. Many Puritans joined the Par¬ liamentary party during the English Civil War and gained considerable power, but after the Restoration they were once again a dissenting minor¬ ity. Believing themselves chosen by God to revolutionize history, some Puritans founded settlements in America (see Pilgrims), notably the Mas¬ sachusetts Bay Colony. The Puritans of Massachusetts emphasized the conversion experience, by which the elect experienced the descent of grace. In their theocracy only the elect were allowed to vote and rule, though the privileges of church membership were extended to all bap¬ tized and orthodox persons.

Purkinje \p3r-'kin-je\, Jan Evangelista (b. Dec. 17, 1787, Libocho- vice, Bohemia—d. July 28, 1869,

Prague, Czech.) Czech experimental physiologist. He discovered the Purkinje effect (as light decreases, red objects appear to fade faster than blue ones), Purkinje cells (large branching neurons in the cerebel¬ lum), and Purkinje fibres (which conduct impulses from the natural pacemaker throughout the heart). At Breslau he created the world’s first independent physiology department and first official physiology labora¬ tory. He introduced the term proto¬ plasm, devised new methods for preparing microscope samples, dis¬ covered the skin’s sweat glands and the nucleus of the unripe ovum, rec¬ ognized the uniqueness of finger¬ prints, and noted that pancreatic extracts digest protein.

purpura Vpor-ps-roX Presence of hemorrhages in the skin, often asso¬ ciated with bleeding from natural cavities and in tissues. Major causes include damage to small artery walls (as in vitamin deficiency or allergic reaction) and platelet deficiency (in association with such disorders as lupus erythematosus and as a complication of leukemia or chemotherapy).

Purus \pu-'riis\ River River, northwest-central South America. It rises in Peru and flows generally northeast through the rainforests of Peru and Brazil in one of the world’s most meandering courses. In Brazil it joins

1568 I purusha ► Pydna

the stretch of the Amazon River upstream from Manaus known as the Solimoes River. At its mouth it divides into numerous branches. Most of its 1,995-mi (3,211-km) course is navigable, as are the many lakes formed near its shores. Rubber is gathered from forests along its course.

purusha See prakriti and purusha

Pusan Vpii-.sanV or Busan City (pop., 2003 est.: 3,747,369) and port, South Korea, at the southeastern tip of the Korean peninsula. Pusan was opened to Japanese trade in 1876 and to general foreign trade in 1883. It developed into a major port under Japanese rule (1910-45). It served as the country’s temporary capital during the Korean War. Pusan is South Korea’s largest port and second largest city. Administratively, it has the status of a metropolitan city equal to that of a province. Industries include shipbuilding and manufacturing. Hot springs are located in the northeast¬ ern suburbs.

Pushkin, Aleksandr (Sergeyevich) (b. June 6, 1799, Moscow, Russia—d. Feb. 10, 1837, St. Petersburg) Russian writer. Born into an aristocratic family, Pushkin began his literary career while still a student at the Imperial Lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo (later renamed Pushkin). His first major work was the romantic poem Ruslan and Ludmila (1820). With his political verses and epigrams, he became associated with a revolu¬ tionary movement that culminated in the unsuccessful Decembrist revolt of 1825. Banished to several provincial locations, he produced a cycle of romantic narrative poems that confirmed him as the leading Russian poet of the day and the leader of the Romantic generation of the 1820s. He also worked on his important historical tragedy, Boris Godunov (1831), and his central masterpiece, the novel in verse Eugene Onegin (1833). After Nicholas I allowed him to return to Moscow in 1826, Pushkin aban¬ doned his revolutionary sentiments, turning to the figure of Peter the Great in poems such as The Bronze Horseman (1837). Other works from this period include the classic short story “The Queen of Spades” (1834) and the drama The Stone Guest (1839). In his late works the motif of peasant rebellion is prominent. The object of suspicion in court circles, he died at age 37 after being forced into a duel. He is often considered his coun¬ try’s greatest poet and the founder of modern Russian literature.

Putin Vpii-tyinV Vladimir (Vladimirovich) (b. Oct. 7, 1952, Len¬ ingrad, U.S.S.R.) Russian president (from 1999). Putin served 15 years with the KGB, including six years in Dresden, East Ger. In 1990 he retired from active KGB service and returned to Russia to become prorector of Leningrad State University, and by 1994 he had risen to the post of first deputy mayor of the city. In 1996 he moved to Moscow, where he joined the presidential staff as deputy to Pavel Borodin, the Kremlin’s chief administrator. In July 1998 President Boris Yeltsin made Putin director of the Federal Security Service (the KGB’s domestic successor). In 1999 Yeltsin appointed Putin prime minister, and on December 31 of that year Yeltsin stepped down as president in Putin’s favour. Three months later Putin won a resounding electoral victory, partly the result of his success in the battle to keep Chechnya from seceding. In his first term he asserted central control over Russia’s 89 regions and republics and moved to reduce the power of Russia’s unpopular financiers and media tycoons. The period was also marked by frequent terrorist attacks by Chechen separat¬ ists. Putin easily won reelection in 2004.

Putnam, Hilary (b. July 31, 1926, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. philoso¬ pher. After receiving his Ph.D. in 1951 he taught at Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Princeton University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard. Early in his career he was a defender of scientific realism. In the 1960s he extended the causal theory of reference to natural-kind and other scientific terms. He is known as the originator of functionalism in the philosophy of mind, though he later rejected that approach (see phi¬ losophy of language). Beginning in the mid-1970s he gradually aban¬ doned his earlier scientific realism in favour of a pragmatically oriented view he called “internal realism.” According to this view, scientific theo¬ ries are not true absolutely but only relative to large-scale conceptual schemes. Among his many works are Philosophical Papers (3 vol., 1975— 83), Reason, Truth, and History (1981), and Pragmatism (1995).

Putnam, Israel (b. Jan. 7, 1718, Salem Village, Mass.—d. May 29, 1790, Pomfret, Conn., U.S.) American Revolutionary army officer. He was a prosperous farmer in Connecticut from 1740. He served throughout the French and Indian War and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1759. Appointed a major general in the Continental Army in 1775, he fought with distinction at Bunker Hill, but his troops were defeated at the Battle of Long Island. He was charged with the defense of the Hudson highlands

but abandoned Fort Montgomery and Fort Clinton to the British. He served in lesser commands until suffering a stroke in 1779.

Putnam, Rufus (b. April 9, 1738, Sutton, Mass.—d. May 4, 1824, Marietta, Ohio, U.S.) American Revolutionary army officer. A cousin of Israel Putnam, he fought in the French and Indian War. Entering the Con¬ tinental Army in 1775, he organized fortifications in Boston and New York (1776-77) and at West Point (1778), and he fought at the Battle of Saratoga. In 1783 he was promoted to brigadier general. After the war he helped found the Ohio Company of Associates to obtain a land grant for settlement by war veterans; he led the group that founded Marietta, Ohio (1788). From 1796 to 1803 he was U.S. surveyor general.

putting-out system See domestic system

Putumayo X.pu-tii-'ma-yoV River River, northwestern South America. Rising in southwestern Colombia, it is about 980 mi (1,575 km) long and flows southeast through tropical rainforests, where it forms a large sec¬ tion of the border between Peru and Colombia. It crosses the border into Brazil, where it is known as the Iqa and empties into the Amazon River. It is navigable for almost its entire length and is a major transport route, especially for the rubber produced in the region.

Puvis de Chavannes NpiE-'ve-do-sha-'vanV Pierre (-Cecile) (b.

Dec. 14, 1824, Lyon, France—d. Oct. 24, 1898, Paris) French painter. He studied briefly with Eugene Delacroix in Paris and exhibited regularly at the Paris Salons. He is best known for his large canvas paintings for the walls of public buildings in Paris, including the Pantheon (1874-78, 1893-98), the Sorbonne (1889-91), and the Hotel de Ville (1891—94), as well as the museum in Amiens (1880-82). He also decorated the staircase of the Boston Public Library (1895-96). His works are usually idealized depictions of antiquity or allegorical representations of abstract themes, in simplified forms and pale, flat, frescolike colours. The leading French mural painter of the later 19th century, he exerted a strong influence on the Post-Impressionists.

The Poor Fisherman, oil on canvas by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, 1881; in the Lou¬ vre, Paris.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEE DU LOUVRE, PARIS; PHOTOGRAPH, MARC GARANGER

PVC in full polyvinyl chloride Synthetic resin, an organic polymer made by treating vinyl chloride monomers with a peroxide. It may be blended with more rubbery polymers or copolymerized with other vinyls to obtain products with desired properties. PVC resin mixed with plasticizers (see Waldo Semon), stabilizers, and pigments is made into flexible articles (e.g., raincoats, toys, containers). Nonplasticized resin has been used for rigid products (e.g., water pipes, plumbing fittings, phonograph records). Concern over leaching of vinyl chloride into foods has resulted in restric¬ tions on its use in food containers; its decomposition into hydrogen chlo¬ ride when burned has also raised concerns. Today it is produced in larger quantities than any other plastic except polyethylene.

Pydna Vpid-noX, Battle of (June 22, 168 bc) Decisive confrontation in the Roman victory over Perseus and Macedonia in the Third Macedonian

pyelonephritis ► pyrimidine I 1569

War. It took place on a plain near Pydna (present-day Kitros, Greece). The Roman general Lucius Paullus (b. c. 229-d. 160 bc) adroitly outma- neuvered the Macedonians; their phalanx was penetrated by the Roman legions, whose short swords were more effective than the Macedonian pikes. When defeat was imminent, Perseus fled. The Romans ended the Macedonian monarchy and divided the country into four republics.

pyelonephritis N.pI-o-lo-ni-'frI-tosN Infection (usually bacterial) and inflammation of kidney tissue and the renal pelvis. Acute pyelonephritis is usually localized and may have no apparent cause. Symptoms include fever, chills, lower-back pain, and bacteria and white blood cells in the urine. Treatment with antibiotics requires one to three weeks. Scar tissue forms, but kidney function is usually not impaired. Chronic pyelonephri¬ tis results from repeated bacterial infections, which may have no symp¬ toms but destroy more and more tissue over years. If it is diagnosed before too much function is lost, surgery may help, but uremia, severe infections, and heart and blood-vessel disorders can lead to death. Dialysis or kidney transplant sometimes prolongs life.

Pygmalion In Greek mythology, a king of Cyprus who fell in love with a statue of Aphrodite. The goddess took pity on him and brought the statue to life, and he married her. In some versions of the myth Pygmalion was a sculptor who carved the statue himself because he was disgusted with the faults of ordinary women, and when it was brought to life he gave it the name Galatea.

Pygmy Member of any human group whose adult males grow to less than 59 in. (150 cm) in average height. The name is also sometimes loosely applied to the San of southern Africa and the so-called Negrito peoples of Asia (such as the Philippine Ilongot). Besides their short stat¬ ure, Pygmies are notable in having the highest basal-metabolism rate in the world and a high incidence of sickle-cell anemia. The Bambuti of the Ituri Forest are a well-studied example. See also race.

Pyle \'pll\, Ernie orig. Ernest Taylor Pyle (b. Aug. 3, 1900, near Dana, Ind., U.S.—d. April 18, 1945, le Shima, Ryukyu Islands) U.S. jour¬ nalist. Pyle left Indiana University to become a reporter for a small-town newspaper. Later he acquired a roving assignment for the Scripps-Howard newspaper chain; his experiences provided material for a column that appeared in as many as 200 newspapers before World War II. His report¬ ing of the campaigns in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and France won a Pulitzer Prize in 1944. He was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire dur¬ ing the Okinawa campaign. Compilations of his columns include Ernie Pyle in England (1941), Brave Men (1944), and Last Chapter (1946).

pylon \'pl-,lan\ (Greek: “gateway”) In modem construction, a tower that gives support, such as the steel towers between which electrical wires are strung or the piers of a bridge. Originally, pylons were monumental gate¬ ways to ancient Egyptian temples, either a pair of tall truncated pyramids with a doorway between them or a masonry mass pierced by a doorway.

Pym \'pim\, John (b. 1583/84, Brymore, Somerset, Eng.—d. Dec. 8, 1643, London) English politician. As a member of Parliament (1621-43), he soon became an expert on finances and colonial affairs. He was an architect of Parliament’s victory over Charles I in the first phase of the English Civil Wars. He helped form the system of taxation that survived in England until the 19th century. His skill as a parliamentary tactician preserved the unity of Parliament and led to close relations between the government and the city of London.

Pynchon Vpin-chonV Thomas (b. May 8, 1937, Glen Cove, Long Island, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. writer. He studied physics at Cornell University and worked briefly as a technical writer before devoting himself to fic¬ tion. Beginning with his first novel, V (1963), a complex, cynically absurd tale that juxtaposes scenes of 1950s hipster life with symbolic images of the entire century, his works have combined black humour and fantasy to depict human alienation in the chaos of modem society. The idea of con¬ spiracy is central to The Crying of Lot 49 (1966) and to his masterpiece, Gravity’s Rainbow (1973), an extraordinary novel about the end of World War II, full of paranoid fantasy, grotesque imagery, and esoteric scientific and anthropological material. Later works include the novels Vineland (1990) and Mason & Dixon (1997) and the story collection Slow Learner (1984). He has lived in hiding or incognito for decades, refusing to grant interviews or be photographed.

P'ydngyang \ 1 pyoq- , yai]\ City (pop., 2003 est.: 3,164,000), capital of North Korea, on the Taedong River. Founded in 1122 bc according to leg¬ end, it is said to be the oldest city in Korea. In 108 bc the Chinese estab¬

lished a trading colony there. It was the capital of the Koguryo kingdom (ad 427-668), then was captured by Chinese invaders. It fell to the Japanese in 1592 and was devastated by the Manchus in the early 17th century. Much of it was destroyed during the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910—45), it was built up as an industrial city. Captured by UN forces during the Korean War in 1950, it was retaken by Chinese communist troops. After 1953 it was rebuilt with Soviet and Chinese aid. It is a centre of heavy industry and transportation.

pyramid Ancient monumental structure constructed of or faced with stone or brick and having a rectangular base and four sloping triangular sides meeting at an apex. Pyramids have been built at various times and places; the best-known are those of Egypt and of Central and South America. The pyramids of ancient Egypt were royal tombs. Each con¬ tained an inner sepulchral chamber that housed the deceased (usually mummified) ruler, members of his entourage, and artifacts. The rest of the pyramid complex consisted of a large enclosure, an adjacent mortuary temple, and a causeway leading down to a pavilion. About 80 royal pyra¬ mids survive in Egypt, the greatest being those at Giza. American pyra¬ mids include the pyramids of the Sun and Moon at Teotihuacan, the Castillo at Chichen Itza, and various Inca and Chimu structures in Andean settlements. These pyramids were generally built of earth and faced with stone; they are typically stepped pyramids and are topped by a platform or temple structure used for rituals, including human sacrifice.

Pyramus and Thisbe Vpir-9-m9s... , thiz-be\ Hero and heroine of a Babylonian love story related in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Their parents forbade them to meet, so they communicated through a hole in the wall between their two houses before at last deciding to run away together. They agreed to meet at a mulberry tree. Arriving first, Thisbe was scared away by a lion, which shredded the veil she dropped when she fled. Pyra¬ mus, finding the veil, believed her dead and stabbed himself; she returned and, finding Pyramus dying, killed herself. The fruit of the mulberry tree, white until then, was stained dark purple by the lovers’ blood.

Pyrenees \'pir-9-,nez\ Mountain range, southwestern Europe. It extends 270 mi (430 km) from the Mediterranean Sea to the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form a high wall between France and Spain; generally, the crest of the range marks the boundary between the two countries. The tiny, autonomous principality of Andorra lies among the range’s peaks. The highest point is Aneto Peak, elevation 11,169 ft (3,404 m). There are few passes through the mountains. The pass at Roncesvalles was made famous in the 12th-century La Chanson de Roland, based on the 778 Battle of Roncesvalles (Roncevaux).

Pyrenees, Treaty of the (November 7, 1659) Peace treaty between France and Spain. From the end of the Thirty Years' War (1648) until 1659, Spain and France fought almost continuously. When Philip IV of Spain did not receive the expected Habsburg support against France, he concluded a peace settlement that ceded border regions to France. The treaty also involved a marriage compact between Louis XIV and the Spanish infanta Maria Teresa, which established Louis as the most powerful monarch in Europe.

pyrethrum \pl-'re-thr9m\ Any of certain plant species of the genus Chrysanthemum (see chrysanthemum) native to South Asia, whose aro¬ matic flower heads, when powdered, constitute the active ingredient in the insecticide pyrethrin (or py rethrum). The concentrations of pyre thrum powder used in insecticides are nontoxic to plants and higher animals; these insecticides therefore find wide use in household and livestock sprays as well as in dusts for edible plants. The typical species, the peren¬ nial C. coccineum, also is the florists’ pyrethrum, or painted lady. Large petals of a deep rose colour surrounding the yellow centre, or disk, are borne on long simple stems above the crown of finely cut leaves.

pyridine \'pir-3-,den\ Any of a class of aromatic compounds with a six- member aromatic ring composed of five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom, making it a heterocyclic compound. The simplest one is pyridine itself (C 5 H 5 N). Natural compounds with pyridine rings include niacin and pyridoxine (see vitamin B complex), the tuberculosis drug isoniazid, and sev¬ eral plant products (e.g., nicotine). Pyridine is used as a raw material for various drugs, vitamins, and fungicides and as a solvent. Because it has a nauseating odour and a burning taste, it is added to ethanol and anti¬ freezes to make them undrinkable (see denaturation).

pyrimidine \p3-Tim-3-,den\ Any of a class of heterocyclic compounds with a ring structure of four carbon and two nitrogen atoms. The simplest

1570 I pyrite ► python

member, pyrimidine itself (C 4 H 4 N 2 ), is not common, but derivatives with the structure are. Examples include thiamine (vitamin Bj), several sulfa drugs, barbiturates, and three of the bases in nucleic acids (cytosine, thym¬ ine, and uracil).

pyrite \'pi-.rit\ or iron pyrite or fool's gold Naturally occurring, gold-coloured iron disulfide mineral. Pyrite has frequently fooled prospec¬ tors into thinking they had discovered gold. Pure pyrite (FeS 2 ) contains 47% iron and 53% sulfur, by weight. Pyrite is used commercially as a source of sulfur, particularly for the production of sulfuric acid. Because there are much better sources of iron, it is not generally used as an iron ore. For many years Spain was the largest producer; other countries include Japan, the U.S., Canada, Italy, Norway, Portugal, and Slovakia.

pyrometer \pl-'ra-m3-t3r\ Instrument for measuring relatively high tem¬ peratures, as in furnaces. Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to be measured (radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being measured). Optical pyrometers measure the temperature of glowing bodies by comparing them visually with an incandescent filament of known temperature whose tem¬ perature can be adjusted. In resistance pyrometers, a fine wire is put in con¬ tact with the object; the instrument converts the change in electrical resistance caused by heat to a reading of the temperature of the object.

pyroxene \pl-'rak-,sen\ A group of important rock-forming silicate min¬ erals of variable composition, among which calcium-, magnesium-, and iron-rich varieties predominate. Common pyroxenes belong to either the low-calcium enstatite-(ortho)ferrosilite series, (Mg,Fe)Si0 3 , or the high- calcium diopside-hedenbergite series, Ca(Mg,Fe)Si 2 0 6 . Rare pyroxenes include jadeite, aegirine, and johannsenite. See also enstatite.

pyroxenite \pi- , rak-so- l n!t\ Dark medium- to coarse-grained igneous rock that consists chiefly of pyroxene. Accessory minerals include horn¬ blende, biotite, or olivine. Pyroxenites are not abundant.

pyrrhotite Vpir-a-.ffiA Iron sulfide mineral in which the ratio of iron to sulfur atoms is somewhat variable but is always slightly less than 1. It commonly is found in association with other sulfides. The variety troilite, with a composition near that of iron sulfide (FeS), is an important con¬ stituent of some meteorites.

Pyrrhus \'pir-9s\ (b. 319— d. 272 bc, Argos, Argolis) King of Hellenis¬ tic Epirus. After being allied to Demetrius and taken hostage, he was befriended by Ptolemy I Soter and restored to his kingdom. In 281 he was asked for help against Rome by the Greek enclave of Tarentum (Taranto) and won costly victories at Heraclea and Ausculum. Crossing to Sicily, he conquered most of the Punic territory, but the Greek Sicilians revolted against his despotism. He suffered serious losses on his return to Italy (275) but defeated Antigonus II Gonatas in Macedonia (274) and became king there. He died in a skirmish in Argos trying to help Sparta. His costly victories gave rise to the term “Pyrrhic victory.”

Pythagoras \p3-'tha-g3-r3s\ (b. c. 580 bc, Samos, Ionia—d. c. 500, Metapontum, Lucania) Greek philosopher and mathematician. He estab¬

lished a community of followers in Croton who adhered to a way of life he prescribed. His school of philosophy reduced all meaning to numeri¬ cal relationships and proposed that all existing objects are fundamentally composed of form and not material substance. The principles of Pythagoreanism, including belief in the immortality and reincarnation of the soul and in the liberating power of abstinence and asceticism, influ¬ enced the thought of Plato and Aristotle and contributed to the develop¬ ment of mathematics and Western rational philosophy. The proportions of musical intervals and scales were first studied by Pythagoras, and he was the first influential Western practitioner of vegetarianism. None of his writ¬ ings survive, and it is difficult to distinguish the ideas he originated from those of his disciples. His memory is kept alive partly by the Pythagorean theorem, probably developed by his school after he died.

Pythagorean \p9-,tha-g3-'re-3n\ theorem Rule relating the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. It says that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle). That is, a 2 + b 2 = c 2 , where c is the length of the hypotenuse. Triads of whole numbers that satisfy it (e.g., 3, 4, and 5) are called Pythagorean triples. See also law of cosines; law of sines.

Pythagoreanism Xps-.tha-gs-'re-s-.ni-zsnA Philosophical school, probably founded by Pythagoras c. 525 bc. It originated as a religious brotherhood or an association for the moral reformation of society; broth¬ ers were sworn to strict loyalty and secrecy. The brotherhood had much in common with the Orphic communities (see Orphism), which sought by rites and abstinence to purify the believer’s soul and enable it to escape from the “wheel of birth.” Pythagoreanism held that reality, at its deepest level, is mathematical, that philosophy can be used for spiritual purifica¬ tion, that the soul can rise to union with the divine, and that certain sym¬ bols have mystical significance. It was the first important Western system of thought to advocate vegetarianism. The school became extinct in the mid-4th century.

Pythian \'pi-the-an\ Games In ancient Greece, various athletic and musical competitions held in honour of Apollo, chiefly those at Delphi. The games were held from before the 5th century bc to the 4th century ad. They took place in August of the third year of each Olympiad (the four- year period between Olympic Games). Events were similar to those of the ancient Olympics.

python \'pl-,than\ Any of 28 species (family Pythonidae, sometimes a subfamily of Boidae) of sluggish, docile, nonvenomous snakes found in tropical and temperate regions. Except for one Central American species {Loxocemus bicolor ), pythons are found from western Africa to China, Australia, and the Pacific islands. Pythons feed on birds and mammals, killing them by constriction. Most are found near water; some are arbo¬ real. Unlike boas, pythons lay eggs (15-100, depending on body size). The Asian reticulated python (.Python reticulatus) may be the world’s longest snake (the anaconda is heavier); specimens over 30 ft (9 m) long have been recorded.

Qadariya ► Qatar I 1571

Qadariya \,ka-d3-'re-3\ In Islam, adherents of the doctrine of free will. The name was also applied to the Mutazila. The issue of free will was a major point of controversy in Islamic theology, and the Qadariya took the most extreme stand in its defense. They based their argument on the necessity of divine justice, maintaining that without responsibility and freedom one cannot fairly be held accountable for one’s actions. See free WILL PROBLEM.

Qaddafi \k3-'da-fe\, Muammar al- or Mu'ammar al-Qadhdhafi (b. 1942, Surt, Libya) Ruler of Libya from 1969. Son of a Bedouin farmer, he was born in a tent in the desert. He graduated from the University of Libya and Libya’s military academy and was a devout Muslim and ardent nationalist. As a captain in the army, he led the 1969 coup that deposed King Idris I. He espoused his own form of Islamic socialism, and his foreign policy was anti-Western and anti-Israel. In 1970 he closed U.S. and British military bases and expelled Italians and Jews.

He banned alcoholic beverages and gambling and in 1973 nationalized the oil industry. He made unsuc¬ cessful attempts to unify Libya with other coun¬ tries. His government was repeatedly linked with terrorist incidents in Europe and elsewhere, and he supported groups trying to overthrow neighbour¬ ing governments. He narrowly escaped death in 1986 when U.S. planes bombed sites in Libya, including his own residence.

qadi \'ka-,de\ Muslim judge who renders decisions according to the Shari"ah, the canon law of Islam. The qadi hears only religious cases, such as those involving inheritance, pious bequests, marriage, and divorce, though theoretically his jurisdiction extends to civil and criminal mat¬ ters. The second caliph, "Umar ibn al-Khattab, was the first to appoint a qadi to eliminate the necessity of his personally judging every dis¬ pute that arose in the community.

Qadisiyyah N.ka-di-'se-oV Battle of (636?) Battle fought near Al-Hlrah (in present-day Iraq) between forces of the Sasanian dynasty and an invading Arab army. The Arab victory over the army of Yazdegerd (r. 632-651) marked the end of his dynasty and the beginning of Arab and Islamic rule in Persia.

Qaeda, al- also al-Qa'idah Arabic "the Base" Broad-based Islamic militant organization founded in Afghanistan by Osama bin Laden. Its members supported Muslim fighters during the Afghan war of 1979— 89; afterward the organization dispersed but continued to oppose secu¬ larized Muslim regimes and foreign (notably U.S.) presence in Islamic lands. It staged numerous terrorist attacks, including the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993, the destruction of two U.S. embassies in Africa in 1998, and a suicide bomb attack against the U.S. warship Cole in 2000. During that time it merged with other Islamic extremist organi¬ zations and eventually reestablished its headquarters in TAUBAN-controlled Afghanistan, where it trained thousands of Muslim militants. In 2001, 19 such militants staged the September 11 attacks. The U.S. and allied forces responded by attacking Taliban and al-Qaeda forces in Afghanistan, kill¬ ing and capturing thousands and driving the remainder into hiding.

Qajar \ka-'jar\ dynasty (1794-1925) Ruling dynasty of Iran. It was founded by Agha Muhammad Khan, who brutally reunified Iran and reas¬ serted Iranian rule over territories in Georgia and the Caucasus by defeat¬ ing his rivals, including the last ruler of the Zand dynasty. His successor, Fath 'All Shah (r. 1797-1834), lost land to Russia and increased contacts with the West. Nasir al-Din Shah’s (r. 1848-96) successful manipulation of Russia and Britain preserved Persia’s independence, but his successors could not cope with subsequent European meddling, and the dynasty was overthrown by Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925.

Qantas Airways Limited Australian airline, the oldest in the English-speaking world, founded in 1920 as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd. (later abbreviated as Qantas). By 2002 it had more than 140 destinations in over 30 countries.

Qara Qoyunlu See Kara Koyunlu

Qaraghandy or Karaganda \,ka-r9-'gan-d3\ city (pop., 1999.: 436,900), central Kazakhstan. The first settlement appeared in 1856, and small-scale coal mining began the next year. Mining expanded rapidly in the early 1930s, and the town was made a city in 1934. Kazakhstan’s sec¬

ond largest city, it consists of the old town, which grew up haphazardly around more than 20 mining settlements, and the new town, the region’s cultural and administrative centre, which includes a university and medi¬ cal and polytechnic institutes.

Qaraism See Karaism Qarqar See Karkar

QasimT \ka-'se-me. Sheikh Sultan ibn Muhammad al- (b. July 1, 1939) Ruler of the emirate of Al-Shariqah (Sharjah) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) from 1972. He succeeded his brother, who was assassi¬ nated. A political moderate, he favoured strengthening the federal gov¬ ernment of the UAE. In the wake of a failed coup attempt by another brother, he agreed to implement financial and admin¬ istrative reforms and to make his brother crown prince, with the right to succeed him, but he changed his mind and exiled his brother in 1990.

Qatar \'ka-tor\ officially State of Qatar Coun¬ try, Middle East, southwestern Asia. It juts out from the east coast of the Arabian Peninsula into the Persian Gulf. Area: 4,412 sq mi (11,427 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 773,000. Capital: Doha. Most of the population is Arab, with South Asian and Iranian minorities who are often migrant workers. Languages: Arabic (official), English. Religions: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni); also Christianity, Hinduism. Currency: Qatar rial. Qatar is mostly stony, sandy, and barren and con¬ sists of salt flats, dune desert, and arid plains. Largely because of petroleum and natural gas exports, its gross national product per capita is one of the highest in the world.

The government owns all of the agricultural land and generates most of the economic activity; the private sector participates in trade and contracting on a limited scale. Qatar is a constitutional emirate, and its basis of legislation is Islamic law. The head of state and govern¬ ment is the emir, assisted by the prime minister. It was partly controlled

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