Britannica Concise 2005

Clazomenae Mdo-'za-mo-.neV Ancient Ionian Greek city, Anatolia. Founded on the mainland, the city was subsequently moved to a nearby island. Part of the Ionian Dodecapolis, it was known for its painted terra¬ cotta sarcophagi (6th century bc). During the 5th century bc it was con¬ trolled by Athens, during which time the philosopher Anaxagoras was bom there. It became subject to the Persian Achaemenian dynasty in 387 bc. A half century or so later Alexander the Great built a causeway con¬ necting the city to the mainland. Under the Romans (see Roman Republic and Empire) it became part of the province of Asia.

Clear Grits Political movement in Canada West (now Ontario). It devel¬ oped in 1849 within the Reform Party in opposition to the province’s pre¬ mier, Robert Baldwin, who advocated reforms that included the use of crown lands to support the Protestant churches. It allegedly took its name from the motto “All sand and no dirt, clear grit all the way through.” Its early leader was Peter Perry; after his death in 1851, control gradually passed to George Brown. It eventually joined other groups to form the Liberal Party of Canada; the term “Grit” denotes a member of that party.

clearinghouse Institution established by firms engaged in similar activities to enable them to offset transactions with one another in order to limit payment settlements to net balances. Clearinghouses play an important role in settling international payments and the transactions of banks, railroads, and stock and commodity exchanges. Bank clearing¬ houses are usually voluntary associations of local banks set up to simplify the exchange of checks, drafts, and notes, as well as to settle balances. Increasingly, the automated clearinghouse (ACH) is used to transfer funds electronically. The clearinghouse idea was applied to various forms of trade from an early time. The Amsterdam Exchange Bank, founded in 1609, became Europe’s largest clearinghouse and made the city an inter¬ national financial centre. The first modern bank clearinghouse was estab¬ lished in London in 1773. The first bank clearinghouse in the U.S. was established in 1853.

cleavage Tendency of a crystalline substance to split into fragments bounded by plane surfaces. Cleavage surfaces are seldom as flat as crys¬ tal faces, but the angles between them are highly characteristic and valu¬ able in identifying a crystalline material. Cleavage occurs on planes where the atomic bonding forces are weakest; for example, galena cleaves par¬ allel to all faces of a cube. Cleavage is described by its direction (as cubic, prismatic, basal) and by the ease with which it is produced. A perfect cleavage produces smooth, lustrous surfaces. Other degrees include dis¬ tinct, imperfect, and difficult. See also fracture.

Cleese, John (Marwood) (b. Oct. 27, 1939, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, Eng.) British actor and screenwriter. He wrote and performed comedy material for British television in the 1960s before helping create the popular comedy show Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1969-74), which later won a large U.S. following with its surreal brand of humour. He cowrote and acted in the television series Fawlty Towers and collabo¬ rated with the rest of the Monty Python troupe on films such as Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), The Life of Brian (1979), and Monty Python ’s The Meaning of Life (1983). His other films include Silverado (1985) and A Fish Called Wanda (1988).

clef French "key" Musical notation symbol at the beginning of a staff to indicate the pitch of the notes on the staff. Clefs were originally letters, identifying letter-named pitches, that were affixed to one or more of the staff’s lines (thus providing a “key” to their identity). Knowing the iden¬ tity of a single line permitted the musician to identify all the other lines and spaces above and below. Clefs were first regularly used in the 12th century. The Gothic letter forms of G and F evolved into the modem treble and bass clefs, respectively; the letter C evolved into the rarer alto, tenor, baritone, and soprano clefs.

cleft palate Fairly common congenital disorder in which a fissure forms in the roof of the mouth. It may affect only the soft palate or extend through the hard palate, so that the nasal cavity opens into the mouth. The sep¬ tum (dividing wall) between the nostrils is often absent. Cleft lip, a fis¬ sure in the lip beneath the nostril, or other abnormalities may accompany it. Cleft palate limits the ability of an infant to suck, which may lead to malnutrition, and causes speech problems in childhood. Surgical repair, usually at about 18 months of age, forms an airtight separation between

nose and mouth. Speech training is still needed, and patients may have a high risk of nose, ear, and sinus infections.

Cleisthenes Vklis-tho-.nezV of Athens (b. c. 570 bc —d. c. 508) Athe¬ nian statesman and chief archon (525-524), regarded as the founder of Athenian democracy. A member of the Alcmaeonid family, he allied him¬ self with the Ecclesia (citizens’ assembly) in 508 and imposed democratic reforms by which the basis of organization was changed from family and clan to locality. The four blood tribes were replaced by 10 local tribes, each with representation from city, coast, and hill areas. The boule (rep¬ resentative council) grew to 500 members. He based all his reforms on isonomia (“equal rights for all”).

Cleitias Vkll-te-9s\ or Kleitias or Clitias (fl. c. 580-550 bc, Greece) Greek vase painter and potter. An outstanding master of the Archaic period, he executed the decorations on the Frangois Vase (c. 570 bc), dis¬ covered in 1844 in an Etruscan tomb.

Painted in the black-figure style (see black-figure pottery), the large vase, signed and decorated with more than 200 figures, is among the greatest treasures of Greek art. Other vases and fragments attributed to him are in the Acropolis Museum, Athens.

clematis Vkle-ms-tss, kli-'ma-t3s\

Any of the more than 200 species of perennial, chiefly climbing shrubs of the genus Clematis (buttercup fam¬ ily), found through most of the world, especially in Asia and North America. Many species are culti¬ vated in North America for their attractive flowers, either solitary or in large clusters. The leaves usually are compound. Common species include woodbine; traveler’s joy, or old- man’s-beard (C. vitalba)\ virgin’s bower (C. cirrhosa ); and vine bower (C. viticella ). The most popular horticultural hybrids are of primarily three species: C. florida, C. patens, and C. jackmanii.

Clemenceau \kla-ma n -'s6 ,\English \ l kle-m9n- , so\ / Georges (b. Sept. 28, 1841, Mouilleron-en-Pareds, France—d. Nov. 24, 1929, Paris) French statesman and journalist. A doctor before turning to politics, he served in the Chamber of Deputies (1876-93), becoming a leader of the radical republican bloc. He founded the newspapers La Justice (1880), L’Aurore (1897), and L’Homme Libre (1913) and came to be ranked among the foremost political writers of his time. His support for Alfred Dreyfus brought him into favour, and he served in the Senate (1902-20). He served as interior minister in 1906 and as premier (1906-09). During World War 1, at age 76, he became premier again (1917-20), and his steadfast pur¬ suit of the war won him the title “Father of Victory.” He also helped frame the postwar Treaty of Versailles, endeavouring to reconcile French inter¬ ests with those of Britain and the U.S. Defeated in a presidential election in 1920, he retired from politics.

Clemens, (William) Roger (b. Aug. 4, 1962, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. baseball pitcher. Clemens played for the Boston Red Sox (1984-96), Toronto Blue Jays (1997-98), New York Yankees (1999-2003), and Hous¬ ton Astros (from 2004). In 1986 he became the first pitcher to strike out 20 batters in a single (nine-inning) game; he later tied his own record (1996). He won the Cy Young Award for best pitcher an unprecedented seven times (1986, 1987, 1991, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2004).

Clement V orig. Bertrand de Got (b. c. 1260, Bordelais region, France—d. April 20, 1314, Roquemaure, Provence) Pope (1305-14), the first to reside at Avignon, France. He became archbishop of Bordeaux in 1299 and was elected pope six years later. By creating a majority of French cardinals, he ensured the election of a line of French popes. He moved the seat of the papacy to Avignon, under pressure from King Philip IV of France, who also forced Clement to annul Pope Boniface VIITs deci¬ sions that were unfavourable to France. The king also compeled the pope to dissolve the Templars, which Philip brutally suppressed. Clement opposed Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII after 1313 and appointed the king of Naples as imperial vicar on Henry’s death. His decretals, the Clementinae, were a notable contribution to canon law.

"Mask of Medusa/' top view of stand made by Ergotimos and painted by Cleitias, c. 560 bc; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, FLETCHER FUND, 1931

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Clement VI ► Clergy Reserves I 417

Clement VI orig. Pierre Roger (b. c. 1291, Corezze, Aquitaine—d. Dec. 6, 1352, Avignon, Provence) Pope (1342-52). Archbishop of Sens and Rouen, he was made cardinal in 1338 and was consecrated pope at Avignon four years later (see Avignon papacy). He launched a Crusade against Smyrna in 1344, ending the piracy of the Ottoman Turks. He also restored papal authority in the Romagna region, which was disputed by families of the Italian nobility. In exchange for his protection, Joan I of Naples sold him Avignon. Clement opposed the Franciscan ascetics known as the Spirituals, enlarged the papal palace, and fostered art and scholarship.

Clement VII orig. Giulio de' Medici (b. May 26,1478, Florence—d. Sept. 25, 1534, Rome) Pope (1523-34). The illegitimate son of Giuliano de’ Medici (see Medici family), he was raised by his uncle Lorenzo de’ Medici. In 1513 he was made archbishop of Florence and cardinal by his cousin Pope Leo X. He commissioned art from Raphael and Michelangelo. A weak and vacillating political figure mainly interested in advancing Medici interests, Clement allied with France in 1527, which led to Emperor Charles V’s sack of Rome. Clement’s indecisiveness complicated Henry VIII’s request for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Ara¬ gon, which contributed to Henry’s decision to break with the church in Rome. His poor leadership also allowed the Reformation to develop fur¬ ther.

Clement of Alexandria, Saint Latin Titus Flavius Clemens (b.

150, Athens—d. between 211 and 215, Palestine; Western feast day November 23; Eastern feast day November 24) Christian apologist, mis¬ sionary theologian to the Hellenistic world, and leader of the catechetical school at Alexandria. He was converted to Christianity by Pantaenus, a former Stoic who preceded him as head of the Alexandria school. Clem¬ ent believed that philosophy was for the Greeks what the Law of Moses was for the Jews, a preparatory discipline leading to the truth. He asserted that men lived first as citizens of heaven and second as earthly citizens, and he defended the right of an enslaved people to rebel against its oppres¬ sors. Persecution by the emperor Septimius Severus in 201-202 obliged him to leave Alexandria and take refuge with Alexander, bishop of Jerus¬ alem. He was revered as a saint in the Latin church until 1586, when doubts about his orthodoxy led to the removal of his name from the list of Roman saints.

Clemente \kb-'men-ta\, Roberto (b. Aug. 18, 1934, Carolina, PR.—d. Dec. 31, 1972, off the coast of Puerto Rico) Puerto Rican base¬ ball player. Clemente played in the minor leagues in his native land before joining the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1955. He led the National League in hitting in 1961, 1964, 1965, and 1967, and batted .362 in two World Series (1960, 1970). He was also known for his fielding, throwing, and base stealing. His career was cut short when he died in the crash of an airplane loaded with relief supplies he had collected for Nicaraguan earthquake victims.

Clementi, Muzio (b. Jan. 24,

1752, Rome, Papal States—d. March 10, 1832, Evesham, Worcestershire,

Eng.) Italian-born English pianist, composer, publisher, and manufacturer. Taken to England at age 13 by a wealthy English traveler who had heard his organ playing, he pursued a rigid course of music studies for seven years while living on his patron’s country estate. His keyboard playing and early sonatas gained him renown in London. In 1781 he and Wolf¬ gang A. Mozart competed before the emperor, and he later toured exten¬ sively as conductor and pianist. In 1798 he restarted a successful music¬ publishing and piano-manufacturing firm. His piano pieces were highly influential, and he taught many leading pianists. His works include more than 100 piano sonatas and Gradus ad Parnassum, 3 vol. (1817-26), a popular pedagogical set of 100 diverse piano pieces.

Cleomenes \kle-'a-m9-,nez\ I (d. 491 bc) Spartan king (519-491). An Agiad (descendant from the legendary founders of Sparta), he ruled jointly with Demaratus. In 510 he expelled the tyrant Hippias from Athens, then supported the oligarchic party against the democratic Cleisthenes and

refused to help Athens combat Persia. His policies did much to solidify Sparta’s position as the leading power in the Peloponnesus. He bribed the oracle at Delphi to depose Demaratus, but he was discovered and fled. Though reinstated, he went insane and committed suicide.

Cleomenes III (d. 219 bc) Agiad Spartan king (r. 235-222). Seeking to institute social reforms, in 227 he canceled debts, redistributed land, and restored the training of youth. He abolished the ephors and introduced the patronomoi (board of six elders). His early attempts to weaken the Achaean League (from 229) were successful, but in 222 his army fell at Sellasia to a Macedonian force summoned by the league. He fled to Egypt, where he was imprisoned but escaped (219); having failed to stir up revolt in Alexandria, he committed suicide.

Cleon (d. 422 bc, Amphipolis, Macedonia) Athenian politician. The first prominent representative of the merchant class in Athenian politics, he became leader of Athens in 429 bc after the death of his enemy Pericles. Advocating an offensive strategy in the Peloponnesian War, he proposed that all citizens of the rebellious Mytilene be put to death and its women and children enslaved; the measure passed but was reversed the next day. He reached the summit of his fame when he captured the Spartan island of Sphacteria, but he was killed by the Spartans while trying to retake Thrace.

Cleopatra in full Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator (b. 69—d. Aug. 30, 30 bc, Alexandria) Egyptian queen (of Macedonian descent), last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Daughter of Ptolemy XII (b.

112?—d. 51 bc), she ruled with her two brother-husbands, Ptolemy XIII (r. 51^47) and Ptolemy XIV (r.

47^44), both of whom she had killed, and with her son, Ptolemy XV, or Caesarion (r. 44-30). She claimed the latter was fathered by Julius Cae¬ sar, who had become her lover after entering Egypt in 48 bc in pursuit of Pompey. She was with Caesar in Rome when he was assassinated (44), after which she returned to Egypt to install her son on the throne.

She lured Mark Antony, Caesar’s heir apparent, into marriage (36), inviting the wrath of Octavian (later Augustus), whose sister Antony had earlier wed. She schemed against and antagonized Antony’s friend Herod the Great, thereby losing his support. At a magnificent celebration in Alexandria after Antony’s Parthian campaign (36-34), he bestowed Roman lands on his foreign wife and family. Octavian declared war on Cleopatra and Antony and defeated their joint forces at the Battle of Actium (31). Antony committed suicide and, after a failed attempt to beguile Octavian, so, too, did Cleopatra, possibly by means of an asp.

Cleophrades Ude-'a-fro-.dezV Painter or Kleophrades Painter

(fl. late 6th-early 5th century bc, Greece) Greek vase painter. Of unknown identity, he takes his name from that of the potter who signed one of his principal works; he may have been a pupil of Euthymides. He decorated large vases with popular scenes, such as athletic contests and mythologi¬ cal epics, mostly in the red-figure style (see red-figure pottery). Over 100 vessels have been attributed to him.

clepsydra See water clock

clerestory \'klir-,stor-e\ Windowed wall of a room that rises higher than the surrounding roofs to light the interior space. In large buildings, where internal walls are far from the outermost walls, the clerestory provides daylight to spaces that otherwise would be dark and windowless. This device was used in Byzantine and early Christian architecture and most highly developed in Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals. As the nave rose much higher than the roofs of the side aisles, its walls could be pierced by a row of windows near the ceiling.

Clergy, Civil Constitution of the See Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Clergy Reserves Lands set aside for the Church of England in Canada. Established by the Constitutional Act of 1791 “for the support and main¬ tenance of a Protestant clergy,” they amounted to one-seventh of all land

Cleopatra, detail of a bas relief, c. 69-30 bc; in the Temple of Hathor, Dandarah, Egypt.

COURTESY OF THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

418 I Clermont ► climatic adaptation

grants. They became controversial after 1815, as some denominations demanded equal reserves and others argued that the lands should serve general public purposes independent of religion. An imperial act of 1827 allowed for the sale of one-fourth of the reserved land; in 1840 another imperial act forbade the creation of any new reserves. The reserves were finally secularized in 1854.

Clermont \kler-'mo n . Council of (1095) Assembly for church reform called by Pope Urban II. When the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus requested aid against the Muslim Turks, the council became the occasion for launching the First Crusade. Urban thus launched a movement that caught the popular imagination with the idea of retaking Jerusalem.

cleruchy \'klir-9-ke\ In ancient Greece, a body of Athenian citizens in a dependent country holding grants of land awarded by Athens. Athens used the cleruchy to cripple dependent states; plantations took the best land, and the colonizers formed military garrisons. Salamis, captured in the 6th century bc, may have held the earliest cleruchy. Under the Delian League and the Second Athenian League (5th—4th century bc), the cleruchy was a regular instrument of Athenian imperialism. The financial advan¬ tage of being a cleruch encouraged many citizens to leave Athens, reliev¬ ing population pressures.

Cleveland City (pop., 2000: 478,403), northeastern Ohio, U.S. Located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, it is Ohio’s second largest city. Ini¬ tially the site of French and Indian trading posts, it took its name from Moses Cleaveland, who surveyed the area in 1796. It expanded follow¬ ing the opening of the Erie Canal and the arrival of the railroad in 1851. The American Civil War provided the stimulus for iron and steel process¬ ing and oil refining (John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil there), and heavy industry is still basic to its economy. More than 400 medical and industrial research centres and numerous educational institutions are in the area. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, designed by I.M. Pei, opened in 1995.

March 18, 1837, Caldwell, N.J.,

Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover (b

U.S.—d. June 24, 1908, Princeton)

22nd and 24th president of the U.S.

(1885-89, 1893-97). From 1859 he practiced law in Buffalo, N.Y., where he entered Democratic Party politics.

As mayor of Buffalo (1881-82), he was known as a foe of corruption. As governor of New York (1883-85), his independence earned him the hostility of Tammany Hall. Elected president in 1884, he supported civil- service reform and opposed high tar¬ iffs. Although he was narrowly defeated by Benjamin Harrison in 1888, he was reelected by a huge popular plurality in 1892. In 1893 he strongly urged Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which he blamed for the coun¬ try’s severe economic depression.

Despite the repeal of the act, the

depression continued, resulting in the Pullman Strike in 1894. An isolation¬ ist, Cleveland opposed territorial expansion. In 1895 he invoked the Mon¬ roe Doctrine in the border dispute between Britain and Venezuela. By 1896 supporters of the Free Silver Movement controlled the Democratic Party, which nominated William Jennings Bryan instead of Cleveland for presi¬ dent. He retired to New Jersey, where he lectured at Princeton University.

Grover Cleveland

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Cliburn Vkll-.bornV Van orig. Harvey Lavan Cliburn, Jr. (b. July 12, 1934, Shreveport, La., U.S.) U.S. pianist. He was taught piano by his mother in his early years. After study with Rosina Lhevinne (1880-1976) at the Juilliard School, he made his debut with the New York Philhar¬ monic. In 1958 he became a national sensation as the first American to win the Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow. In 1962 he established the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition in Fort Worth, Texas. Pos¬ sessed of an impressive technique, he limited himself to the Romantic repertoire and spent many years away from the concert stage.

click In phonetics, a suction sound made in the mouth. Click sounds occur in various African languages and are often used as interjections in other languages—for example, the sound of disapproval represented in

English by tsk, tsk. Clicks are a regular part of the consonant system in the Khoisan languages and in Bantu languages such as Xhosa and Zulu that have been strongly influenced by Khoisan.

client-centered therapy See nondirective psychotherapy

client-server architecture Architecture of a computer network in which many clients (remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer). Client computers provide an inter¬ face to allow a computer user to request services of the server and to dis¬ play the results the server returns. Servers wait for requests to arrive from clients and then respond to them. Ideally, a server provides a standard¬ ized transparent interface to clients so that clients need not be aware of the specifics of the system (i.e., the hardware and software) that is pro¬ viding the service. Today clients are often situated at workstations or on personal computers, while servers are located elsewhere on the network, usually on more powerful machines. This computing model is especially effective when clients and the server each have distinct tasks that they routinely perform. In hospital data processing, for example, a client com¬ puter can be running an application program for entering patient infor¬ mation while the server computer is running another program that manages the database in which the information is permanently stored. Many clients can access the server’s information simultaneously, and, at the same time, a client computer can perform other tasks, such as send¬ ing e-mail. Because both client and server computers are considered intel¬ ligent devices, the client-server model is completely different from the old “mainframe” model, which utilized a centralized mainframe computer that performed all the tasks for its associated “dumb” terminals.

cliff dwelling Prehistoric, usually multistoried house of the ancestors of present-day Pueblo Indians, built from c. 1000 along the sides or under the overhangs of cliffs. The use of hand-hewn stone building blocks and adobe mortar in these communal dwellings was unexcelled even in later times. Rooms on upper levels could be entered either by doorways from adjoining rooms or by ladders through holes in the ceilings; ground-floor rooms could be entered only through the ceiling. It is thought that the cliff dwellings were built as a defense against invading Navajo and Apache tribes. They were deserted by the inhabitants around the end of the 13th century. Many ruins remain, including notable ones at Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Mesa Verde National Park, and Montezuma Castle National Monument.

Clift, (Edward) Montgomery (b. Oct. 17, 1920, Omaha, Neb., U.S.—d. July 23, 1966, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actor. He acted on Broad¬ way and was a founding member of the Actors Studio (1947). He made his film debut in The Search (1948) and became a star with Red River (1948). Noted for his serious, sensitive roles, he portrayed troubled heroes in films such as A Place in the Sun (1951), From Here to Eternity (1953), The Young Lions (1958), Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), and Freud (1962). Scarred by a car crash in 1956, he became addicted to drugs and alcohol and died of a heart attack at 45.

climate Condition of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period of time (from one month to many millions of years, but generally 30 years). Climate is the sum of atmospheric elements (and their varia¬ tions): solar radiation, temperature, humidity, clouds and precipitation (type, frequency, and amount), atmospheric pressure, and wind (speed and direction). To the nonspecialist, climate means expected or habitual weather at a particular place and time of year. To the specialist, climate also denotes the degree of variability of weather, and it includes not only the atmosphere but also the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and such extraterrestrial factors as the sun. See also urban climate.

climatic adaptation In physical anthropology, the genetic adaptation of human beings to different environmental conditions, such as extreme cold, humid heat, desert habitat, and high altitudes. Extreme cold favours short, round bodies with short arms and legs, flat faces with fat pads over the sinuses, narrow noses, and a heavy layer of body fat. These adapta¬ tions provide minimum surface area in relation to body mass for mini¬ mum heat loss and protect the lungs and base of the brain against cold air in the nasal passages. In conditions of humid heat, where body heat must be dissipated, selection favours tall and thin bodies with maximum surface area for heat radiation. A wide nose prevents warming of the air in the nasal passages, and dark skin protects against harmful solar radia¬ tion. The desert-adapted person must compensate for water loss through sweating. A thin but not tall body minimizes both water needs and water loss; skin pigmentation is moderate, since extreme pigmentation is good

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climatology ► ditoridectomy I 419

protection from the sun but allows absorption of heat from direct sun¬ light, which must be lost by sweating. Adaptation to night cold, often part of a desert environment, provides increased metabolic activity to warm the body during sleep. High altitudes demand, in addition to cold adap¬ tation, adaptation for low air pressure and the consequent low oxygen, usually by an increase in lung tissue. See also acclimatization; race.

climatology Branch of atmospheric science concerned with describing climate and analyzing the causes and practical consequences of climatic differences and changes. Climatology treats the same atmospheric pro¬ cesses as meteorology, but it also seeks to identify slower-acting influ¬ ences and longer-term changes, including the circulation of the oceans, the concentrations of atmospheric gases, and the small but measurable variations in the intensity of solar radiation.

Cline, Patsy orig. Virginia Patterson Hensley (b. Sept. 8, 1932, Winchester, Va., U.S.—d. March 5, 1963, near Camden, Tenn.) U.S. singer. Cline sang with country music groups as a teenager. She began recording in the mid-1950s and won first place on Arthur Godfrey’s tele¬ vision show with “Walking After Midnight” (1957), a hit that made her the first female country singer to cross over into pop music. In 1960 she joined the Grand Ole Opry. After recovering from injuries sustained in a car crash, she returned in 1962 with hits such as “I Fall to Pieces” and “Crazy.” She was killed in an airplane crash.

clinical psychology Branch of psychology concerned with the diag¬ nosis and treatment of mental disorders. Clinical psychologists evaluate patients through interviews, observation, and psychological tests, and they apply current research findings and methodologies in making diagnoses and assigning treatments. Most clinical psychologists hold an academic degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) rather than a medical degree (M.D.); they may provide psychotherapy but cannot prescribe medications. Most practiction- ers work in hospitals or clinics or in private practice, often in tandem with psychiatrists and social workers, treating mentally or physically disabled patients, prison inmates, drug and alcohol abusers, and geriatric patients, among others. See also psychiatry; social work.

Clinton, Bill in full William Jefferson Clinton orig. William Jefferson Blythe III (b. Aug. 19, 1946, Hope, Ark., U.S.) 42nd presi¬ dent of the U.S. (1993-2001). Born shortly after his father’s death in a car crash, he later took the last name of his mother’s second husband, Roger Clinton. He attended Georgetown University, the University of Oxford (as a Rhodes Scholar), and Yale Law School, then taught law at the University of Arkansas. He served as state attorney general (1977-79) and served several terms as governor (1979-81, 1983-92), during which he reformed Arkansas’s educational system and encouraged the growth of industry through favourable tax policies. In 1992 he won the Democratic Party’s presidential nomination despite charges of personal impropriety; in the subsequent election he defeated the incumbent. Republican George Bush, and independent candidate H. Ross Perot. As president, Clinton obtained Senate ratification of the NAFTA accord in 1993. Along with his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, he devised a plan to overhaul the U.S. health care system, but it was rejected by Congress. He committed U.S. forces to a peacekeeping initiative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1994 the Democrats lost control of Congress for the first time since 1954. Clinton responded by offering a deficit-reduction plan while opposing efforts to slow government spending on social programs. He defeated Robert Dole to win reelection in 1996. In 1997 he helped broker a peace agreement in Northern Ireland. He faced renewed charges of personal impropriety, this time involving his relationship with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky; he denied the charges before a grand jury but ultimately acknowledged “improper relations” in a televised address. In 1998 Clin¬ ton became only the second president in history to be impeached. Charged with perjury and obstruction of justice, he was acquitted by the Senate in 1999. His two terms saw sustained economic growth and successive bud¬ get surpluses, the first in three decades.

Clinton, DeWitt (b. March 2, 1769, Little Britain, N.Y.—d. Feb. 11, 1828, Albany, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. politician. A nephew of George Clinton, he practiced law and served as state senator (1798-1802, 1806-11), U.S. senator (1802-03), mayor of New York City (1803-15 except for two annual terms), lieutenant governor (1811-13), and governor (1817-23, 1825-28). He proposed the idea of a canal across New York state, and he oversaw the construction of Erie Canal from 1816 until its opening in 1825. The canal assured the 19th-century development of New York City as the major port of trade with the Midwest.

Clinton, George (b. July 26, 1739, Little Britain, N.Y.—d. April 20, 1812, Washington, D.C., U.S.) U.S. politician, fourth vice president of the U.S. (1805-12). A veteran of the French and Indian War, he was a leading member of the New York assembly (1768-75) and a delegate to the Continental Congress (1775). As governor of New York (1777-95, 1801-04), he was a forceful leader and able administrator; he led the opposition to the state’s adoption of the U.S. Constitution. A supporter of Thomas Jefferson, he was twice elected vice president (with Jefferson and James Madison); he died in office.

Clinton, Hillary Rodham orig. Hillary Diane Rodham (b. Oct. 26, 1947, Chicago, HI., U.S.) U.S. lawyer, first lady, and politician. She attended Wellesley College and Yale Law School, from which she gradu¬ ated first in her class. Her early professional interests focused on family law and children’s rights. In 1975 she married her Yale classmate Bill Clinton, and she became first lady of Arkansas on his election as gover¬ nor in 1979. She was twice named one of America’s 100 most influential lawyers by the National Law Journal. When her husband became presi¬ dent (1993), she wielded power and influence almost unprecedented for a first lady. As head of the Task Force on National Health Care Reform, she proposed the first national health-care program in the U.S. but saw the initiative defeated. In 2000 she was elected to the U.S. Senate from New York, thereby becoming the first wife of a president to win elective office.

Clinton, Sir Henry (b. April 16?, 1730?—d. Dec. 23, 1795, Cornwall, Eng.) British commander in chief during the American Revolution. Com¬ missioned in the British army in 1751, he went to North America in 1775 as second in command to William Howe. He commanded British troops to victories in New York and then succeeded to the supreme command on Howe’s retirement in 1778. He led an offensive in the Carolinas in 1780 and effected the fall of Charleston. On his return to New York, he left Charles Cornwallis in charge of subsequent operations, which ulti¬ mately resulted in the British surrender after the Siege of Yorktown. He resigned in 1781 and returned to England, where he found himself blamed for the Yorktown defeat.

cliometrics V.kll-o-'me-triksV Application of economic theory and sta¬ tistical analysis to the study of history, developed by Robert W. Fogel (b. 1926) and Douglass C. North (b. 1920), who were awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1993 for their work. In Time on the Cross (1974), Fogel used statistical analysis to examine the relationship between the politics of American slavery and its profitability. North studied the link between a market economy and legal and social institutions such as prop¬ erty rights in such works as Structure and Change in Economic History (1981). See also econometrics.

clipper ship Classic sailing ship of beauty, grace, and speed. Apparently originating with the small, swift coastal packet known as the Balti¬ more clipper, the true clipper evolved first in the U.S. (c. 1833) and later in Britain. It was a long, slim, graceful vessel with a projecting bow, a streamlined hull, and an exceptionally large spread of sail on three tall masts. Clippers carried tea from China and goldminers to Cali¬ fornia. Famous clippers included the American Flying Cloud and the Brit¬ ish Cutty Sark. Though much faster than the early steamships (already in use when the clipper appeared), they were eventually outrun by improved steamship models and largely dis¬ appeared from commercial use in the 1870s.

Clitias See Cleitias

ditoridectomy or female circumcision or female genital mutilation Ritual surgical procedure ranging from drawing blood, to removing the clitoris alone, to infibulation or Pharaonic circumcision— removing the external genitals, joining the sides and leaving a small open¬ ing. Now often illegal, it dates to ancient times and purports to guard virginity and reduce sexual desire in traditional societies in many parts of the less-developed world. Infibulation, especially common in Sudan, Somalia, and Nigeria, is usually done by a midwife, often in unhygienic conditions. It may lead to severe bleeding, infection, exquisite pain, and

the 19th century, renowned for its

The clipper Flying Cloud

COURTESY OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM, MASS.

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420 I Clitunno River ► cloister

death; if not, urination and sexual intercourse can be painful and men¬ strual blood may be retained. Women are reinfibulated after childbirth.

Clitunno River \kle-'tun-no\ ancient Clitumnus. River, central Italy. It flows 37 mi (60 km) northwest to join a tributary of the Tiber River. A nearby spring was described by Virgil and Pliny the Younger and visited by the emperors Caligula and Flavius Honorius.

Clive (of Plassey), Robert, 1 st Baron (b. Sept. 29, 1725, Styche, Shropshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 22, 1774, London) British soldier and colonial administrator. In 1743 he was sent to Madras (Chennai) for the East India Company, where hostilities between it and the French East India Company allowed him to demonstrate his military skills. He made a fortune and returned to England in 1753 but was sent back to India in 1755. In 1757 his victory over the nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey made him the virtual master of Bengal. His first government, though tainted by cor¬ ruption and duplicity, was a model of generalship and statecraft. Back in England, he was elected to Parliament (1760) but failed to become a national statesman. He returned to India as governor and commander in chief of Bengal (1765-67). His reorganizing of the colony, including his fight against corruption, helped establish Britain’s power in India. He himself was attacked by Parliament on charges of corruption; though exonerated, he later committed suicide.

cloaca \klo-'a-k3\ In vertebrates, common chamber and outlet into which the intestinal, urinary, and genital tracts open. It is present in amphib¬ ians, reptiles, birds, some fishes (e.g., sharks), and monotreme mammals but is absent in placental mammals and most bony fishes. Certain animals (e.g., many reptiles and some birds, including ducks) have an accessory organ (penis) within the cloaca that is used to direct the sperm into the female’s cloaca. Most birds mate by joining their cloacas in a “cloacal kiss”; mus¬ cular contractions transfer the sperm from the male to the female.

dock Machine or electronic device that measures and records time. Both simple and elaborate clocks, as well as sundials, candle clocks, and sand¬ glasses, were used for measuring time in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The first mechanical clocks were weight-driven and perhaps were invented for use in monasteries, where the disciplined life required a strict rendering of time. The first European public clock that struck the hours was erected in Milan in 1335, and the oldest surviving clocks are in England (1386) and France (1389). The first domestic clocks appeared late in the 14th century. About 1500 Peter Henlein, a German locksmith,

A classic pendulum clock. The power to run the clock comes from a slowly falling weight (other mechanical clocks utilize a spring). The escapement prevents the weight from falling all at once, and the swinging pendulum regulates the rate at which the escapement allows the clock's wheels (gears) to turn. The time required for a complete swing (period) of the pendulum depends only on the pendulum's length: a 39-in. (990-mm) pendulum has a period of one second.

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began to make the first portable timepieces, small clocks driven by a spring. Christiaan Huygens invented pendulum clocks in 1656. Big Ben, the great clock at Westminster in London, was installed in 1859 and is the standard for all accurate tower pendulum clocks. The most accurate mechanical timekeepers (within a few thousandths of a second per day) are clocks with short pendulums (about 39 in. [or 990 mm]). In 1929 the vibration of a quartz crystal was first applied to timekeeping; the maxi¬ mum error of an observatory quartz-crystal clock is only a few ten- thousandths of a second per day. The first atomic clock went into operation in 1951. Atomic clocks, regulated by the natural periodic behaviour of a system of atoms (such as vibrations or emission of radiation), can have accuracies exceeding one billionth of a second per day, making them the most accurate clocks yet invented.

Clodion \klod-'yo n \ orig. Claude Michel (b. Dec. 20, 1738, Nancy, Fr.—d. March 29, 1814, Paris)

French sculptor. In 1755 he entered his uncle’s workshop in Paris, and later he became a student of Jean- Baptiste Pigalle. In 1759 he won the grand prize at the Royal Academy and embarked on a successful career, first in Rome and then in Paris, where he exhibited regularly at the Salon. He excelled at small statu¬ ettes and terra-cotta figures of nymphs, satyrs, and groups. After the French Revolution he changed his style to suit the Neoclassical taste for monumentality; he worked on the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel (1805-06) and the Vendome Column

(1806-09).

Clodius Pulcher Vklo-de-os-'pol- kar\, Publius (b. c. 92—d. January,

52 bc, Bovillae, Latium) Roman politician. While fighting against Mithradates, he stirred up mutiny among the troops (68-67). In 62 he was accused of disguising himself as a female harpist to infiltrate a wom¬ en’s festival at Julius Caesar’s house.

Though Cicero gave damaging evidence against him, he was acquitted, but Caesar divorced his wife because she was alleged to have admitted Clodius to the ceremony. As tribune (58), Clodius passed laws to punish Cicero for executing without trial those implicated in Catiline’s con¬ spiracy, and Clodius had Cicero outlawed. Clodius’s political partisans engaged in street fighting that disrupted Roman elections for several years. He was killed by another faction in a running brawl on the Appian Way.

cloisonne \,kl6i-z3-'na\ Enameling technique. Delicate strips of gold, brass, silver, copper, or other metal wire are welded to a metal plate in the shape of a design, and the resulting cellular spaces are filled with vit¬ reous enamel paste that is fired, ground smooth, and polished. The earliest surviving examples are six 13th-century bc Mycenaean rings.

The technique reached its peak in the West during the Byzantine Empire.

Chinese cloisonne was widely pro¬ duced during the Ming and Qing dynasties; in Japan it was popular in the Edo and Meiji periods. See also ENAMELWORK.

cloister Four-sided enclosure sur¬ rounded by covered walkways and usually attached to a monastic or cathedral church; also, the walkways themselves. The earliest cloisters were open arcades, usually with

sloping wooden roofs. This form was Qpen arcaded doister of Saint . generally superseded in England by TrophTnle AdeS; Fr . a range of windows lighting a jeanroubier vaulted ambulatory (aisle). In south-

"Female Satyr Carrying Two Putti," terra-cotta statuette by Clodion; in the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore

COURTESY OF THE WALTERS ART GALLERY, BALTIMORE

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clone ► clown I 421

ern climates, the open-arcaded cloister remained standard. An especially fine example is Donato Bramante’s two-story open arcade at Santa Maria della Pace, Rome (1500^4).

clone Population of genetically identical cells or organisms that origi¬ nated from a single cell or organism by nonsexual methods. Cloning is fundamental to most living things, since the body cells of plants and ani¬ mals are clones that come ultimately from a single fertilized egg. More narrowly, the term refers to an individual organism grown from a single body cell of its parent that is genetically identical to the parent. Cloning has been commonplace in horticulture since ancient times; many variet¬ ies of plants are cloned simply by obtaining cuttings of their leaves, stems, or roots and replanting them. The body cells of adult humans and other animals are routinely cultured as clones in the laboratory. Entire frogs and mice have been successfully cloned from embryonic cells. British researchers led by Ian Wilmut achieved the first success in cloning an adult mammal in 1996. Having already produced clones from sheep embryos, they were able to produce a lamb (Dolly) using DNA from an adult sheep. The practical applications of cloning are economically prom¬ ising but philosophically unsettling.

Close, Chuck (b. July 5, 1940, Monroe, Wash., U.S.) U.S. artist. After early Abstract Expressionist experiments, in his first solo exhibition Close showed a series of enormous black-and-white portraits that he had pains¬ takingly transformed from small photographs to colossal. Photorealist paintings. Throughout his career, he concentrated on portraits—from the neck up—based on photographs he had taken. In addition to self-portraits, the paintings were usually of friends, many of whom were prominent in the art world. He experimented with a variety of media and techniques, including using fingerprints and colourful tiles that, seen from a distance, combined into an illusionistic whole. In 1988 a spinal blood clot left Close almost completely paralyzed and confined to a wheelchair. A brush¬ holding device strapped to his wrist and forearm, however, allowed him to continue working.

Close YklosV Glenn (b. March 19, 1947, Greenwich, Conn., U.S.) U.S. actress. She made her Broadway debut in 1974 and later starred in Bar- num (1980), The Real Thing (1984, Tony Award), and Death and the Maiden (1992, Tony Award). Her film debut in The World According to Garp (1982) was followed by roles in films such as The Natural (1984), Fatal Attraction (1987), and Dangerous Liaisons (1989). She also starred in the acclaimed television film Sarah, Plain and Tall (1991) and later returned to Broadway in Sunset Boulevard (1995, Tony Award).

closed-end trust See investment trust

closed shop Arrangement whereby a company employs only workers who are members in good standing of a specified labour union. It is the most rigid of the various schemes for protecting labour unions (more flexible arrangements include the union shop). Closed shops were declared illegal in the U.S. under the Taf-Hartley Act of 1947, but in practice they continue to exist in some industries, such as construction.

clostridium \klas-'trid-e-3m\ Any of the rod-shaped, usually gram¬ positive bacteria (see gram stain) that make up the genus Clostridium. They are found in soil, water, and the intestinal tracts of humans and other ani¬ mals. Some species grow only in the complete absence of oxygen. Dor¬ mant cells are highly resistant to heat, drying, toxic chemicals, and detergents. The toxins produced by C. botulinum, which causes botulism, are the strongest poisons known. The toxin of C. tetani causes tetanus; other species can cause gangrene.

Cloth of Gold, Field of See Field of Cloth of Gold

cloud Any visible mass of water droplets, ice crystals, or a mixture of the two that is suspended in the air, usually at a considerable height. Clouds are usually created and sustained by upward-moving air currents. Meteorologists classify clouds primarily by their appearance. The 10 main cloud families are divided into three groups on the basis of altitude. High clouds, which are found at mean heights of 45,000-16,500 ft (13-5 km), are, from highest to lowest, cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus. Middle clouds, at 23,000-6,500 ft (7-2 km), are altocumulus, altostratus, and nimbostratus. Low clouds, at 6,500-0 ft (2-0 km), are stratocumulus, stratus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus. A shallow layer of cloud at or near ground level is called fog.

cloud chamber Radiation detector developed by C.T.R. Wilson. Its detecting medium is a supersaturated vapour (see saturation) that con¬

denses around ions produced by the passage of energetic charged particles, such as alpha particles, beta particles, or protons. In a Wilson cloud cham¬ ber, supersaturation is caused by the cooling induced by a sudden expan¬ sion of the saturated vapour by the motion of a piston or an elastic membrane. In a diffusion chamber, the saturated vapour is cooled to super¬ saturation as it diffuses into a region kept cold by a coolant such as solid carbon dioxide or liquid helium.

Clouet \klii-'e\, Jean (b. c. 1485—d. c. 1540, Paris, Fr.) French painter. He was chief painter to Francis I and produced many pastel portraits of members of the French court. Clouet was one of the best 16th-century portrait painters, both incisive and delicate in the psychological charac¬ terization of sitters. His drawings are simple, broad, and subtle; his paint¬ ings are fresh in colour, subdued in modeling, and minute in execution. He was celebrated in his lifetime as the equal of Michelangelo. His son Francois Clouet (c. 1515-72) took his place as official painter to Francis I in 1540.

clove Small, reddish brown flower bud of the tropical evergreen tree Syzygium aromaticum (sometimes called Eugenia caryophyllata ), of the myrtle family. The tree is believed to be native to the Moluccas of Indo¬ nesia. Cloves were important in the earliest spice trade. With a strong aroma and hot and pungent taste, they are used to flavour many foods. Clove oil is sometimes used as a local anesthetic for toothaches. Eugenol, its principal ingredient, is used in germicides, perfumes, and mouth¬ washes, in the synthesis of vanillin, and as a sweetener or flavour inten- sifier.

clover Any legume of the genus Trifolium, composed of 300 or more annual and perennial species, found in most temperate and subtropical regions. The alternate, compound leaves usually have three toothed leaflets. The very small, fragrant flowers are crowded into dense heads. Clovers are highly palatable to livestock and high in protein, phos¬ phorus, and calcium, thus providing valuable nourishment in the form of hay, pasture, and silage. They also improve and conserve soil by adding nitrogen and increasing the availabil¬ ity of other nutrients for crops that follow. The most important agricul¬ tural species are red clover (T. prat- ense), white clover (T. repens), and alsike clover (T. hybridum).

Clovis Vklo-v9s\ I German Chlodweg (b. c. 466—d. Nov. 27, 511, Paris, Fr.) Merovingian founder of the Frankish kingdom. The son of Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks, Clovis was still a pagan when he conquered the last Roman ruler in Gaul at Soissons (486). He extended his rule as far south as Paris by 494. His wife, Clotilda, was a Catholic princess later recognized as a saint. She sought to convert Clovis to her faith. According to Gregory of Tours, during a faltering campaign against the Alamanni in 496, Clovis invoked his wife’s god and saw defeat turned to victory. He was baptized at Reims two years later, and he credited St. Martin of Tours for his victory over the Visigoths. Although he was the first Germanic king to accept Catholic Christianity, Clovis expressed inter¬ est in Arian Christianity before converting to his wife’s religion. He pro¬ mulgated the legal code known as the Lex Salica. He is traditionally regarded as the founder of the French monarchy and the original French champion of the Christian faith.

Clovis complex Widely distributed prehistoric culture of North America characterized by leaf-shaped flint projectile points with fluted sides. The complex also includes bone tools, hammerstones, scrapers, and unfluted points. It derives its name from the first site examined, in 1932, near Clovis, N.M. Clovis projectile points, dating from c. 10,000 bc, have been found in association with mammoth bones and indicate the existence of a big-game hunting tradition among the earliest settlers of North America. See also Folsom complex.

clown Comic character of mime and pantomime and the circus. The clown developed from the bald-headed, padded buffoons who performed in the farces and mimes of ancient Greece and from the professional comic actors of the Middle Ages. The Italian commedia dell'arte introduced the

Clover (Trifolium)

KEN BRATE-PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

422 I club moss ► cnidarian

harlequin, and the clown’s whiteface makeup was introduced with the 17th-century French character Pierrot. The distinctive clown costume of oversized shoes, hat, and giant ruff around the neck was established by the popular German clown character Pickelherring. The first circus clown, Joseph Grimaldi, appeared as “Joey” in England (1805) and specialized in pantomime, pratfalls, and slapstick. Famous 20th-century clowns included the Swiss pantomimist Grock (Adrian Wettach), the U.S. circus star Emmett Kelly, and the longtime star of the Moscow circus, Oleg Popov.

club moss Any of about 200 species of primitive vascular plants that constitute the genus Lycopodium (order Lycopodiales), mainly native to tropical mountains but also common in northern forests of both hemi¬ spheres. They are evergreen plants with needlelike leaves and, often, cone¬ like clusters of small leaves (strobili; see cone), each with a kidney-shaped spore capsule at its base. Representative species include running pine, or stag’s horn moss (L. clavatum), ground cedar (L. complanatum ‘flabel- liforme’), shining club moss (L. lucidulum), fir club moss (L. selago ), ground pine (L. obscurum), and alpine club moss (L. alpinum).

Cluj-Napoca Vkliizh-'na-po-kaV German Klausenburg Hungarian Kolozsvar \'ko-lozh-,var\ City (pop., 2002: 702,755), northwestern Romania. Located in the Some§ul Mic River valley on the site of an ancient town, Cluj took shape in the 12th century, became a thriving com¬ mercial and cultural centre, and in 1405 was declared a free town. It became the capital of Transylvania in the 16th century. In 1920 Transyl¬ vania was incorporated into Romania. In the mid-1970s the city was joined with neighbouring Napoca. It is home to a university; its institute of speleology (the study of caves) was the first in the world.

Cluny Monastery founded in 910 by William the Pious, duke of Aquita¬ ine. Established as a pious donation for the cure of the souls of the duke and his wife and family, the monastery at Cluny came to offer a more austere reading of the Benedictine Rule. It was dedicated to the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, and in practice it came under the protection of the pope. William also established the independence of the monastery from all temporal rulers, religious or secular, and allowed the monks to elect the abbot. These liberties enabled the community to develop its empha¬ sis on the liturgy and prayers for the dead, which inspired a reputation for holiness and attracted numerous benefactors. Cluniac monks were sent to reform monasteries throughout Europe and created a great web of related communities. Cluny’s influence on the church in the 11th—12th century has been widely recognized, and its abbots were greatly esteemed. Its predominance was eroded by the rise of the Cistercian order, and in the later Middle Ages the monastery declined. It was suppressed during the French Revolution and closed in 1790. Its Romanesque Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul (largely demolished in the 19th century) was the world’s largest church until the erection of Saint Peter's Basilica.

Clurman, Harold (Edgar) (b. Sept. 18, 1901, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 9, 1980, New York City) U.S. director and drama critic. He was an actor from 1924 and was a founding member of the experi¬ mental Group Theatre. He directed a wide range of Broadway plays, including Awake and Sing! (1935), Member of the Wedding (1950), Touch of the Poet (1957), and Incident at Vichy (1965), and he wrote drama reviews for The New Republic (1949-53) and The Nation (1953-80).

cluster of galaxies Gravitationally bound grouping of galaxies, num¬ bering from the hundreds to the tens of thousands. Large clusters of gal¬ axies often exhibit extensive X-ray emission from intergalactic gas heated to tens of millions of degrees. Also, interactions of galaxies with each other and with the intracluster gas may deplete galaxies of their own interstellar gas. The Milky Way Galaxy belongs to the Local Group, which lies on the outskirts of the Virgo Cluster.

clutch Device for quickly and easily connecting or disconnecting a pair of rotatable coaxial shafts. Clutches are usually placed between the driv¬ ing motor and the input shaft to a machine and provide a convenient means for starting and stopping the machine and permitting the driving motor or engine to be started in an unloaded state (as in an automobile). Mechani¬ cal clutches provide either a positive (no-slip) or a friction-dependent drive; centrifugal clutches provide automatic engagement. An overrun¬ ning clutch transmits torque in one direction only and permits the driven shaft of a machine to freewheel (continue rotating after the driver stops); on bicycles, such clutches permit the rider to coast without moving the pedals.

Clutha River Vklti-thoN River, New Zealand. The longest river in South Island, it rises in the Southern Alps and flows southeast 200 mi (320 km) to the sea. Its valley supports sheep, beef, grain, and fruit farming in the upper reaches and vegetable and dairy farming in the delta. The large Roxburgh hydroelectric station is located 45 mi (72 km) upstream.

Clyde, River River, southern Scotland. Scotland’s most important river, it flows about 100 mi (160 km) from the Southern Uplands to the Atlan¬ tic Ocean. The upper Clyde is a clear fishing stream flowing north, but at Biggar it changes course and winds northwest to the Falls of Clyde. Beyond the falls, the widening Vale of Clyde, famous for the breeding of Clydesdale horses, is intensively cultivated. The Clydeside shipyards bor¬ der the river for 20 mi (32 km) below Glasgow. At Dumbarton it reaches its estuary, the Firth of Clyde, which extends about 65 mi (105 km).

Clydesdale \ , klldz-,dal\ Breed of heavy draft horse that originated in Lanarkshire, Scotland, near the River Clyde. Though introduced to North America c. 1842, the Clydesdale never became a popular draft horse there. They average 17-18 hands (68-72 in., or 173-183 cm) in height and 2,000 lbs (900 kg) in weight. Their coloration is usually bay, dark brown, or black, with prominent white markings. They are noted for their high leg action while walking or trotting. The breed is characterized by feather (long hair) on the legs, an attractive head, and well-formed legs and feet.

cnidarian \nl-'dar-e-3n\ or coelenterate \si-'len-t9-,rat\ Any of about 9,000 species of mostly marine aquatic invertebrates, constituting the phylum Cnidaria (or Coelenterata), that are unique in possessing spe¬ cialized stinging cells (cnidocytes) borne on the tentacles. Cnidocytes contain fluid-filled capsules (nematocysts) with a harpoonlike coiled

tentacle mouth

Cnidarian body forms. A cnidarian may display either the sessile polyp form or the free-swimming medusa form; some pass through both forms during their life cycle. Both possess a hollow cavity with a single opening surrounded by tentacles. The polyp has a basal disc by which it attaches to the substrate; the mouth typically faces away from the substrate. In the medusa (jellyfish) form, the tentacles and mouth face downward. The outer cell layer (ectoderm) and inner cell layer (endo- derm) are separated by the jellylike mesoglea. The mouth is also used to expel wastes. Digestion begins within the gastrovascular cavity and is completed by endo- derm cells.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cnidus ► coati I 423

thread used for stinging, paralyzing, and capturing prey. Cnidarians have no well-defined separate respiratory, circulatory, or excretory organs; their tissues, composed of two cell layers, surround a cavity known as a coe- lenteron (gastrovascular cavity), which is the basic internal organ. Ten¬ tacles surrounding the mouth are used to capture and ingest food. Cnidarians are carnivorous, feeding mostly on zooplankton but also on small crustaceans, fish eggs, worms, smaller cnidarians, and even small fish. Cnidarians range in size from nearly microscopic to more than 100 ft (30 m) long and more than a ton (910 kg) in weight. There are two basic body forms: the polyp (e.g., coral) and the medusa (e.g., jellyfish). See also hydra; Portuguese man-of-war; sea anemone.

Cnidus Vnl-dosN Ancient Greek coastal city, southwestern Anatolia. An important commercial centre and the home of a renowned medical school, Cnidus was one of six cities in the Dorian Hexapolis. It came under the control of the Persian Achaemenian dynasty after 546 bc. A democracy in the 4th century bc, it fell under Ptolemaic control in the 3rd century bc. A free city within the Roman province of Asia, it lasted until the 7th century ad, when it was abandoned. Excavation has revealed numerous public buildings, including the Temple of Aphrodite, where fragments of the celebrated statue of Aphrodite by Praxiteles were discovered.

CNN or Cable News Network Subsidiary company of Turner Broadcasting Systems. It was created by Ted Turner in 1980 to present 24-hour live news broadcasts, using satellites to transmit reports from news bureaus around the world. CNN became prominent in 1991 with its coverage of the Persian Gulf War. The company also operates the news channels Headline News and CNN International. See also cable television.

coach Four-wheeled, horse-drawn carriage with an enclosed body and an elevated seat in front for the driver. The coach originated in the 15th cen¬ tury in Hungary (where kocsi originally meant “wagon from the town of Kocs”). It was introduced in England in the mid-16th century. Coaches were used as public conveyances with inside seats for passengers (as in the stagecoach) and for mail delivery. They were used mainly in European cit¬ ies into the 18th century, when the private carriage became more common.

Coachella \kd-'chel-3\ Valley Valley, southern California, U.S. Part of the Colorado Desert, the 15-mi- (24-km-) wide valley stretches 45 mi (72 km) between the Little San Bernardino Mountains and the San Jacinto and Santa Rosa mountains. A productive agricultural region, it also has popular desert resorts, including Palm Springs.

coagulation Process of forming a blood clot to prevent blood loss from a ruptured vessel. A damaged blood vessel stimulates activation of clot¬ ting factors, eventually leading to the formation of long, sticky threads of fibrin. These make a mesh that traps platelets, blood cells, and plasma. This meshwork soon contracts into a resilient clot that can withstand the friction of blood flow. Under abnormal circumstances, clots can form in an intact vessel and may block it. See also anticoagulant.

Coahuila V.ko-a-'we-laX State (pop., 2000: 2,298,070), northeastern Mexico. It covers 57,908 sq mi (149,982 sq km), and its capital is Saltillo. Coahuila occupies a roughly broken plateau intersected by several moun¬ tain ranges. The first Spanish settlement in the region was at Saltillo in 1575. Coahuila and Texas formed a single state (1824-36) until Texas declared its independence. In 1857 Coahuila was combined with Nuevo Leon, and in 1868 it became a separate state. Its economy is based on livestock raising, agriculture, and mining; southern Coahuila has long been known for the wine and brandy it produces.

coal Solid, usually black but sometimes brown, carbon-rich material that occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits. One of the most important fos¬ sil fuels, it is found in many parts of the world. Coal is formed by heat and pressure over millions of years on vegetation deposited in ancient shallow swamps (see peat). It varies in density, porosity, hardness, and reflectivity. The major types are lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Coal has long been used as fuel, for power generation, for the production of COKE, and as a source of various compounds used in syn¬ thesizing dyes, solvents, and drugs. The search for alternative energy sources has periodically revived interest in the conversion of coal into liquid fuels; technologies for coal liquefaction have been known since early in the 20th century.

Coal Measures Major division of Upper Carboniferous (323-290 mil¬ lion years ago) rocks and time in Great Britain. The Coal Measures account for much of England’s coal production. The deposits consist largely of bituminous coal, though anthracite coals occur in southern Wales.

Though local variation in the coal seams occurs, great uniformity is evi¬ dent on a regional scale, and some coal beds can be identified through¬ out Great Britain and even on the European continent.

coal mining Extraction of coal deposits from the Earth’s surface and from underground. Because coal was the basic energy source that fueled the Industrial Revolution, the resulting industrial growth supported the large-scale exploitation of coal deposits. In the late 20th century, open pit mines replaced underground mines as the principal source of coal in the industrial nations. The MINING of coal from surface and underground deposits today is a highly productive, mechanized operation.

Coalsack Dark nebula in the Crux constellation (Southern Cross). It reduces the brightness of stars beyond it by 1—1.5 magnitudes. Easily vis¬ ible against a starry background, it is probably about 550-600 light-years from Earth and 20-30 light-years in diameter. It figures in legends of peoples of the Southern Hemisphere and has been known to Europeans since c. 1500. The Northern Coalsack, in the constellation Cygnus, is similar in nature and appearance but somewhat less obvious.

coarctation of the aorta See coarctation of the aorta

Coase \'koz\, Ronald (Harry) (b. Dec. 29, 1910, Willesden, Mid¬ dlesex, Eng.) British-U.S. economist. He received his doctorate from the London School of Economics and taught principally there and the Uni¬ versity of Chicago. In his best-known paper, “The Problem of Social Cost” (1960), he challenged the classical logic of prohibiting behaviour that damages others. He argued that legal scholars should focus on the importance of an efficient marketplace and on negotiation rather than liti¬ gation. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1991.

coast or shore Broad area of land that borders the sea. The coastlines of the world’s continents measure about 193,000 mi (312,000 km). They have undergone shifts in position and changes in shape over geologic time because of substantial changes in the relative levels of land and sea. Other factors that alter coasts are erosion processes such as wave action and weathering, deposition of rock debris by currents, and tectonic activity. Coastal features result largely from the interaction and relative intensity of these processes, though the type and structure of the underlying rocks also play a part.

coast guard Naval force that polices compliance with a nation’s mari¬ time laws and assists vessels wrecked or in distress on or near its coasts. First established in the early 19th century to discourage smuggling, coast guards may maintain lighthouses, buoys, and other navigational aids and provide emergency aid to merchant sailors and to victims of natural disas¬ ters. Duties may include icebreaking in inland waterways and the collec¬ tion and broadcasting of meteorological data concerning floods and storms. In several European countries, volunteer lifeboat associations handle coast-guard duties.

Coast Ranges or Pacific Coast Ranges Series of ranges, along the Pacific coast of North America. They run from southern California through Oregon and into west-central Washington. The ranges’ average elevation is about 3,300 ft (1,000 m) above sea level, but some peaks and ridges rise to more than 6,600 ft (2,000 m). Giant redwoods dominate the forests along the coasts of southern Oregon and northern California. The Coast Mountains of British Columbia are not a continuation of the U.S. Coast Ranges but of the Cascade Range.

coat of arms or shield of arms Heraldic device dating to the 12th century in Europe. It was originally a cloth tunic worn over or in place of armour to establish identity in battle. In the full armorial achieve¬ ment the distinctively patterned shield is ornamented with a crest, helmet, mantling, motto, crown, wreath, and supporters and rests upon a compartment. Arms were later adopted as emblems for schools, churches, guilds, and corpo¬ rations to reflect their origins or his¬ tories. See also heraldry.

coati \k9-'wa-t3, kwa-'te\ or coa¬ ti mu ndi Any of three species (genus Nasua, family Procyonidae) of raccoonlike omnivores, found in

Coati (Nasua nasua)

DICK ROBINSON-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

424 I coaxial cable ► Cobra

wooded regions from the southwestern U.S. through South America. The coati has a long, flexible snout and a slender, darkly banded tail that it often carries erect. The male measures 29-54 in. (73-136 cm) in length (half of which is tail) and weighs 10-24 lbs (4.5-11 kg). Females and young commonly live in bands of five to 40; males are solitary, joining bands only during mating season. Coatis feed by day on seeds, fruits, eggs, and small animals.

coaxial cable or coax Self-shielded cable used for transmission of communications signals, such as those for television, telephone, or com¬ puter networks. A coaxial cable consists of two conductors laid concen¬ trically along the same axis. One conducting wire is surrounded by a dielectric insulator, which is in turn surrounded by the other, outer con¬ ductor, producing an electrically shielded transmission circuit. The whole cable is wrapped in a protective plastic sheathing. The signal propagates within the dielectric insulator, while the associated current flow is restricted to adjacent surfaces of the inner and outer conductors. As a result, coaxial cable has very low radiation losses and low susceptibility to external interference.

Cobain, Kurt (b. Feb. 20, 1967, Aberdeen, Wash., U.S.—d. April 5, 1994, Seattle, Wash.) U.S. rock musician. He formed the rock trio Nir¬ vana in Aberdeen in 1986. The band, whose style derived from punk rock, combined the fury of that genre with anguished lyrics, a style that, together with their tom jeans and flannel shirts, became known as grunge rock. Their first album, Bleach (1989), was followed by Nevermind (1991), featuring the hit “Smells Like Teen Spirit”; it was the first punk- oriented album to achieve popularity with a mainstream audience. Cobain was elevated to prominence, but with the album In Utero (1993) he railed against his fame. Known for his self-destructive behaviour and heroin use, he shot and killed himself in his home.

cobalt Metallic chemical element, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Co, atomic number 27. Widely dispersed in small amounts in many minerals and ores, this magnetic, silvery white metal with a faint blu¬ ish tinge is used mostly for special alloys (e.g., alnico, tool steel) with exacting applications. At valence 2 or 3 it forms numerous coordination complexes. One is vitamin B 12 (cyanocobalamin; see vitamin B complex). Cobalt and its compounds are used in electroplating and colouring ceram¬ ics and glass and as lamp filaments, catalysts, a trace element in fertilizers, and paint and varnish driers. The pigment cobalt blue has a variable com¬ position, roughly that of cobalt oxide plus alumina. A radioactive isotope of cobalt emits penetrating gamma rays that are used in radiation therapy.

Cobb, Howell (b. Sept. 7, 1815, Jefferson county, Ga., U.S.—d. Oct. 9, 1868, New York, N.Y.) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1843-51, 1855-57), where he promoted Southern inter¬ ests by supporting the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War. Nev¬ ertheless, he also supported the Compromise of 1850, which was favoured by the North. He served as governor of Georgia (1851-53). He supported the presidential candidacy of James Buchanan, who appointed him secre¬ tary of the treasury (1857-60). An opponent of Abraham Lincoln, he became a spokesman for secession. He served as chairman of the con¬ vention called to organize the Confederacy, then organized his own regi¬ ment and led it to the front in the American Civil War.

Cobb, Ty in full Tyrus Raymond Cobb (b. Dec. 18, 1886, Narrows, Ga., U.S.—d. July 17, 1961, Atlanta,

Ga.) U.S. baseball player, one of the greatest offensive players and per¬ haps the fiercest competitor in base¬ ball history. He joined the Detroit Tigers in 1905, batting left-handed but throwing right-handed. He spent 22 seasons as an outfielder with the Detroit Tigers, then managed them from 1921 to 1926. His record for career batting average (.366) remains unbroken; those for runs batted in (1,937), runs (2,245), and hits (4,189) stood for many years. He batted at least .300 for 23 straight seasons, an all-time record, and his three years of batting over .400 also represent a record. His career record of 892 stolen bases (partly the result

of the brutality with which he used his cleats) was surpassed only in 1979. In the first election to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936, Cobb received the most votes.

Cobbett, William (b. March 9, 1763, Farnham, Surrey, Eng.—d. June 18, 1835, London) English journalist. He joined the army and served in Canada (1785-91). He lived in the U.S. (1794-1800), where he launched his career as a journalist, fiercely attacking the spirit and practice of American democracy and winning himself the nickname “Peter Porcu¬ pine.” He returned to England and founded the weekly Political Register (1802), which he published until his death. He championed traditional rural values as England entered the Industrial Revolution; his reactionary views of the ideal society struck a powerful chord of nostalgia, and he also criticized corruption, harsh laws, and low wages.

Cobden, Richard (b. June 3, 1804, Dunford Farm, near Midhurst, Sussex, Eng.—d. April 2, 1865, Lon¬ don) British politician. He gained an independent fortune in the calico wholesale business. After travel to study trade policies in Europe and the U.S., he wrote pamphlets on international free trade. He was elected to Parliament (1841-57,

1859-65) and, with his close associ¬ ate, John Bright, successfully fought to repeal the Corn Laws. In the 1850s he argued for friendly relations with Russia, even after the Crimean War had begun. He helped negotiate a commercial treaty with France (1860) that included a most¬ favoured-nation clause later dupli¬ cated in other treaties.

cobia Vko-bo-oX Swift-moving, slim marine game fish ( Rachycen- tron canadum ), the only member of the family Rachycentridae. Found in most warm oceans, this voracious predator may grow as long as 6 ft (1.8 m) and weigh 150 lbs (70 kg) or more. It has a jutting lower jaw, a rather flat head, and light-brown sides, each with two lengthwise, brown stripes. Its distinctive dorsal fin consists of a row of short spines followed by a long, soft-rayed fin.

Coblenz See Koblenz

COBOL Vko-.boA in full Common Business-Oriented Lan¬ guage. High-level computer programming language, one of the first widely used languages and for many years the most popular language in the business community. It developed from the 1959 Conference on Data Systems Languages, a joint initiative between the U.S. government and the private sector. COBOL was created to fulfill two major objectives: portability (ability of programs to be run with minimum modification on computers from different manufacturers) and readability (ease with which a program can be read like ordinary English). It ceased to be widely used in the 1990s.

cobra Any of several highly venomous elapid snakes that expand their neck ribs to form a hood. They are found in warm regions of Africa,

Australia, and Asia. Cobra bites are fatal in about 10% of human cases.

Cobras feed primarily on small verte¬ brates. The Indian cobra (Naja naja) kills several thousand people annu¬ ally, mostly because it enters houses to catch rats. The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the world’s largest venomous snake, often more than 12 ft (3.5 m) long. Some African cobras can spit their venom more than 6 ft (1.8 m). Cobras are favourites of snake charmers, who, by their movements rather than their music, tease the deaf snakes into assuming the upreared defense posture.

Cobra Expressionist group of painters formed in Paris in 1948. The name derives from the first letters of the capitals of their native countries:

Ty Cobb.

PICTORIAL PARADE

Cobden, pencil sketch by V. Manzano; in the West Sussex Record Office (Cob¬ den Papers 762)

COURTESY OF THE GOVERNORS OF DUNFORD AND THE COUNTY ARCHIVIST OF WEST SUSSEX

Black-necked cobra (Naja nigricollis)

E.S. ROSS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Coburn ► cockfighting I 425

Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam. The group, which disbanded in 1951, included Karel Appel, Pierre Alechinsky (b. 1927), Jean-Michel Atlan (1913-60), Guillaume Corneille (b. 1922), and Asger Jom (1914-73). Their work, influenced by poetry, film, folk art, and “primitive” art, fea¬ tured brilliant colour and spontaneous brushwork akin to action painting; the human figure was a frequent motif.

Coburn, Alvin Langdon (b. June 11, 1882, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 23, 1966, Rhos-on-Sea, Denbighshire, Wales) U.S.-born British pho¬ tographer. He did not take up photography seriously until he met Edward Steichen in 1899. In 1902 he opened a studio in New York City and joined the Photo-Secession. In 1904 he went to London with a commission to photograph celebrities; his memorable portraits include those of Auguste Rodin, Henry James, and George Bernard Shaw posing as Rodin’s Thinker. In 1917, influenced by Cubism and Futurism, he produced the first photo¬ graphs depicting abstract compositions.

coca Tropical shrub ( Erythroxylum coca ) of the family Erythroxylaceae. It is native to the eastern Andes Mountains but cultivated in Africa, northern South America, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan. Its leaves are the source of cocaine and several other alkaloids. Coca thrives best in hot, damp environments, such as forest clearings; but the leaves most pre¬ ferred are obtained in drier localities, on the sides of hills. The composition of different specimens of coca leaves is highly variable. Good samples have a strong tealike odor and a pleasant, pungent taste. When chewed, coca leaves produce a sense of warmth in the mouth; because of their potent stimulant and appetite-depressant effects, coca has been used for centuries by South American peasants to ease the effects of punishing physical labor.

Coca-Cola Co. U.S. corporation known for manufacturing the syrup and concentrate for the soft drink Coca-Cola, the most popular branded drink in the world. Coca-Cola was invented as a tonic by an Atlanta, Ga., pharmacist, John S. Pemberton (1831-88); it included cocaine (removed in 1905) and caffeine-rich extracts of the kola nut. Another Atlanta phar¬ macist, Asa Griggs Candler (1851-1929), acquired the formula and in 1892 founded the Coca-Cola Co., which he built into a commercial empire. Candler saw the product as syrup to be combined with carbon¬ ated water at a soda fountain; he did not anticipate the success of the bottled product, and as a result bottling operations were run by franchi¬ sees. After World War II the company began to manufacture other bev¬ erages, and in the early 21st century its product line included root beer, bottled water, juices, and sports drinks. Its corporate headquarters are in Atlanta.

cocaine Heterocyclic compound (C 17 H 2 iN 0 4 ), an alkaloid obtained from coca leaves. It has legal uses in medicine and dentistry as a local anes¬ thetic but far more is used illegally, usually as the hydrochloride. When sniffed in small amounts, cocaine produces feelings of well-being and euphoria, decreased appetite, relief from fatigue, and increased mental alertness. Larger amounts or prolonged use can damage the heart and nasal structures and cause seizures. In altered, more potent, cheaper forms (free- base, crack), cocaine is injected or smoked and is extremely addictive (see drug addiction) and detrimental to health. Prolonged or compulsive use of any form of purified cocaine can cause severe personality disturbances, inability to sleep, appetite loss, and paranoid psychosis.

coccus \'ka-kos\ Spherical bacterium. Many species have characteristic arrangements that are useful in identification. Pairs of cocci are called diplococci; rows or chains, streptococci (see streptococcus); grapelike clusters, staphylococci (see staphylococcus); packets of eight or more cells, sarcinae; and groups of four cells in a square arrangement, tetrads. These characteristic groupings occur as a result of variations in the repro¬ duction process.

Cochabamba \,ko-cha- , bam-ba\ City (pop., 2001: 516,683), central Bolivia. Founded as Villa de Oropeza in 1574, it received city status in 1786 and was renamed Cochabamba (Khocha Pampa), a name in the Que- chua language that means “plain full of small lakes.” A favourable climate and attractive setting have helped make it Bolivia’s third largest city. It is

the chief distribution point for eastern Bolivia. It is the site of the Major University of San Simon (1826), a cathedral, and a government palace.

Cochin Vko-.chinX China French Cochinchine \ko-she n -'shen\ Region, southern Vietnam. Covering 30,000 sq mi (77,700 sq km), the area was a vassal of the Chinese empire and later part of the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia. Its capital, Saigon (see Ho Chi Minh City), was occupied by the French in 1859. It was made a French colony in 1867 and combined with other French protectorates to form French Indochina in 1887. Incor¬ porated into Vietnam in 1949, it was part of South Vietnam (1954-76) until the country was reunited. It includes the Mekong River delta, one of the greatest rice-producing regions in Asia.

Cochise \ko-'ches\ (d. June 8, 1874, Chiricahua Apache Reservation, Ariz.Terr., U.S.) Chiricahua Apache chief who led the resistance to white incursions into the American Southwest. Nothing is known of his birth or early life. His people remained at peace with white settlers through the 1850s, but in 1861 skirmishes and eventually all-out war broke out between the Apache and the U.S. Army. Cochise and his followers eluded capture for 10 years. By 1872, however, most Apache, including Cochise, had agreed to move onto reservations.

Cochran, Jacqueline (b. 1910?, Pensacola, Fla., U.S.—d. Aug. 9, 1980, Indio, Calif.) U.S. aviator. Orphaned early and reared in poverty, she had learned to fly by 1932, partly to promote the products of the cos¬ metics company she had founded. In 1938 she set a speed record for women flying across North America. In World War II she trained women transport pilots in the British and later the U.S. Air Force auxiliaries. In 1953 she broke the world speed record (for both men and women) in a jet, and in 1961 she became the first woman to fly at twice the speed of sound.

cockatiel Vka-ko-.telX Crested, small, gray Australian parrot ( Nymphi - cus hollandicus). It has a yellow head, red ear patches, and a heavy beak used to crack nuts. The cockatiel is in the same family (Cacatuidae) as the larger cockatoo. About 13 in. (32 cm) long, the cockatiel lives in open areas and eats grass seeds. One of the most common pet parrots, it is bred in many colour variations.

cockatoo Any of 21 species of crested parrots (family Cacatuidae), found in Australia and from New Guinea to the Solomon Islands. Most species are white with touches of red or yellow; some are black. All have a massive beak used to crack nuts, dig up roots, or pry grubs from wood; feeding is aided by a worm¬ like tongue. Treetop, hole-nesting birds, cockatoos at times form large, noisy flocks that damage crops. The largest cockatoo (the palm, or great black, cockatoo) is about 25-30 in.

(65-75 cm) long. Some cockatoos live more than 50 years.

Cockburn, Sir Alexander (James Edmund), 10th Bar¬ onet (b. Dec. 24, 1802—d. Nov. 21,

1880, London, Eng.) British jurist. In his early career he earned a high reputation in trials and as a reporter of cases. He served in the House of Commons (1847-56), as attorney general (1851-56), and as chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas (1856-59) before being appointed to the Queen’s Bench (1859-74). He served on the panel that decided the Ala¬ bama claims and finally served as lord chief justice of England (1874-80). He is best known for his tests of obscenity (to be obscene, the material in question had to be proved to “deprave and corrupt” those exposed to it) and insanity (to be insane, a criminal defendant had to be proved unwit¬ ting of the “nature and quality” of his criminal act or incapable of rec¬ ognizing it as wrong).

cockchafer Large European beetle ( Melolontha melolontha ) that dam¬ ages foliage, flowers, and fruit as an adult and plant roots as a larva. In Britain, the name refers more broadly to any of the beetles in this sub¬ family (Melolonthinae), which are known in North America as June beetles. See also chafer, scarab beetle.

cockfighting Contest in which gamecocks, often fitted with metal spurs, are pitted against each other. Fights are usually to the death. An

Coca (Erythroxylum coca).

W.H. HODGE

Sulfur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita).

WARREN GARST/IOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

426 I cockle ► codependency

ancient and widespread sport, cockfighting traditionally involves betting on single matches or a series of pairings. Though many countries have banned or restricted it, the laws are not always strictly enforced and ille¬ gal matches are often held privately.

cockle or heart clam Any of approximately 250 species (family Car- diidae) of marine bivalves distributed worldwide. They range in diameter from about 0.5 in. (1 cm) to about 6 in. (15 cm). The two valves of the shell are equal in size and shape and range in colour from brown to red or yellow. Most species live just below the low-tide line, though some have been obtained from depths of more than 1,500 ft (500 m) or in the inter¬ tidal zone. Many species are mar¬ keted commercially for their meat.

Cockpit Country Region, west¬ ern central Jamaica. Covering some 500 sq mi (1,300 sq km), the area has typical karst topography, with conical hills rising above sinkholes with sharp, precipitous sides (called “cockpits”). This inhospitable terrain pro¬ vided refuge for runaway slaves, who became guerrilla fighters when the English conquered Jamaica in 1665. Their descendants today number about 5,000 and still maintain some independence: all land belongs to the community, they pay no taxes, and the central government may interfere only in case of a capital crime.

cockroach or roach Any of more order Blattaria, order Dictyoptera) that are among the most primitive living, winged insects and among the oldest (more than 320 million years old) fossil insects. Cockroaches have a flattened, oval body; long, thread¬ like antennae; and a shining, leath¬ ery, black or brown covering. They prefer a warm, humid, dark environ¬ ment and are usually found in tropi¬ cal or other mild climates, but have become widespread in heated build¬ ings, especially city apartment build¬ ings, in the temperate zone, and infestations can be severe. Only a few species have become pests. Cockroaches eat both animal and plant mate¬ rial. The American cockroach is up to about 2 in. (30-50 mm) long. The German cockroach (less than 0.5 in., or about 12 mm, long) is a common household pest which has been spread throughout the world by ship.

Coco River formerly Segovia River River, Central America. Rising in southern Honduras, it flows 485 mi (780 km) to enter the Caribbean Sea at Cape Gracias a Dios. In 1961 its middle and lower course was declared the international boundary between Honduras and Nicaragua. Only the lower 140 mi (225 km) are navigable.

coconut palm Tree ( Cocos nucifera) of the palm family, one of the most important crops of the tropics. Its slender, leaning, ringed trunk rises from a swollen base and is topped by a graceful crown of giant, feathery leaves. The large ovoid or ellipsoid mature fruits have a thick, fibrous husk sur¬ rounding the familiar single-seeded nut. The nut contains a white and somewhat sweet meat, which is eaten raw; coconut oil is extracted from the meat. The nutritious liquid “milk” at the centre may be drunk directly from the nut. The husk provides coir, a fibre highly resistant to salt water that is used in the manufacture of ropes, mats, baskets, brushes, and brooms. The nutshells are used as containers and often decoratively carved.

Cocos Islands or Keeling Islands Territory (pop., 1996: 558) of Australia. Lying in the eastern Indian Ocean about 580 mi (930 km) southwest of Java, it consists of two isolated atolls and 27 small coral islets and has a total land area of 5.6 sq mi (14.4 sq km). They were dis¬ covered in 1609 by William Keeling and first settled in 1826. Declared a British possession in 1857, the Cocos at times came under the govern¬ ment of Ceylon but ultimately passed to Australia in 1955. In 1984 the residents voted to merge with Australia.

Cocteau \kok-'t6\, Jean (b. July 5, 1889, Maisons-Laffitte, near Paris, France—d. Oct. 11, 1963, Milly-la-Foret, near Paris) French poet, play¬

wright, and film director. He pub¬ lished his first collection of poems,

La Lampe d’Aladin, at age 19. He converted to Catholicism early but soon renounced religion. During World War I he was an ambulance driver on the Belgian front, the set¬ ting for the novel Thomas Timposteur (1923). In the years when he was addicted to opium, he produced some of his most important works, including the play Orphee (1926) and the novel Les Enfants ter- ribles (1929). His greatest play is thought to be The Infernal Machine (1934). His first film was The Blood of a Poet (1930); he returned to film- making in the 1940s, first as a screenwriter and then as a director, and made such admired films as Beauty and the Beast (1945), Orphee (1949), and Le Testament d’Orphee (1960). Musically, Cocteau was closely associated with the group of com¬ posers known as Les Six; among other collaborations, he provided ballet scenarios for Erik Satie (Parade, 1917) and Darius Milhaud (Le Boeuf sur le toit, 1920) and wrote librettos for Igor Stravinsky (Oedipus, 1927) and Milhaud (La Voix humaine, 1930). Also an artist, he illustrated numerous books with his vivid drawings, and he worked as a designer as well.

cod Large and economically important marine fish (Gadus morhua, fam¬ ily Gadidae) found on both sides of the North Atlantic, usually near the bottom in cold water. It ranges from inshore regions to deep waters. It is valued for its edible flesh, the oil of its liver, and other products. The cod is dark-spotted and ranges from greenish or grayish to brown or black¬ ish; it may also be dull to bright red. It usually weighs up to about 25 lbs (11.5 kg) but can reach a maximum length and weight of more than 6 ft (1.8 m) and 200 lbs (91 kg). It feeds largely on other fishes and various invertebrates.

Cod, Cape See Cape Cod

Coddington, William (b. 1601, Boston, Lincolnshire, Eng.—d. Nov. 1, 1678, Rhode Island) American colonial governor and religious dissi¬ dent. An official in the Massachusetts Bay Company, he immigrated to Massachusetts in 1630 and served in the colonial legislature. As a fol¬ lower of Anne Hutchinson, he was obliged to leave the colony for Aquid- neck Island (Rhode Island), where he established settlements at Portsmouth and Newport. Although he hoped to maintain Aquidneck as a separate colony, it was combined with Roger Williams’s Providence plantation in 1644. Later acknowledging Rhode Island’s unity, he served as its governor in 1674, 1675, and 1678.

code System of symbols and rules used for expressing information according to an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information from one system, such as a letter, word, or phrase, with an arbitrarily selected equivalent in another system. Substitution ciphers are similar to codes except that the rule for replacing the information is known only to the transmitter and the intended recipient of the information. Binary code and other machine languages used in digital computers are examples of codes. Elaborate commercial codes were developed during the early 20th cen¬ tury (see Jean M.E. Baudot, Samuel F. B. Morse). In recent years more advanced codes have been developed to accommodate computer data and satellite communications. See also ASCII, cryptography.

code, law See law code

Code Napoleon See Napoleonic Code

codeine Heterocyclic compound, a naturally occurring alkaloid found in opium, used in medicine as a cough suppressant and analgesic drug. It exerts its effects by acting on the central nervous system (brain and spi¬ nal cord). Chemically it is methylmorphine, the methyl ether of morphine, an alkaloid of the phenanthrene type; its action is weaker than that of moiphine, and it is less likely to lead to drug addiction.

codependency An extreme dependency by one person on another who is suffering from an addiction. Common characteristics include low self¬ esteem coupled with a high need for approval. Not a formal psychiatric

Great heart cockle (Dinocardium robustum)

HARRY ROGERS

than 3,500 insect species (in sub-

Female cockroach ( Periplaneta )

COUN BUTLER-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

Cocteau, 1939.

GISELE FREUND

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

codex ► Coeur i 427

diagnosis, codependency is a psychological syndrome noted in relatives or partners of alcoholics or substance abusers.

codex Manuscript book, especially of Scripture, early literature, or ancient mythological or historical annals. The earliest type of manuscript in the form of a modem book (i.e., a collection of pages stitched together along one side), the codex replaced earlier rolls of papyrus and wax tab¬ lets. Among its advantages, it could be opened at once to any point in the text, it permitted writing on both sides of the leaf, and it could contain long texts. The oldest extant Greek codex is the Codex Sinaiticus (4th century ad), a biblical manuscript. Codices were developed separately by pre-Columbian Mesoamericans after c. ad 1000.

Codium Vko-de-3m\ Genus of marine green algae usually found in deep pools along rocky coasts. The threadlike branches are often woven together to form a velvety body sometimes longer than 12 in. (30 cm). In some species the body has visible branches; in others it folds in on itself like intestines. Codium is the favourite food of some sea slugs.

cod-liver oil Oil obtained primarily from the liver of the Atlantic cod and related fish. It is principally a mixture of the glycerides (see glycerol) of many fatty acids, but its minor constituents, the fat-soluble vitamin A and vitamin D, give it its importance. It was once used to treat and pre¬ vent rickets, but the widespread fortification of milk with vitamin D in the United States and Europe beginning in the 1930s eliminated rickets as a significant public health problem. It is still used as a remedy for joint pain caused by arthritis and as a preventive of cardiovascular disease, although these benefits have not been proven scientifically. It is also used in feeds for poultry and other animals.

Cody, William F(rederick) known as Buffalo Bill (b. Feb. 26, 1846, Scott county, Iowa, U.S.—d.

Jan. 10, 1917, Denver, Colo.) U.S. buffalo hunter, army scout, and Indian fighter. He became a rider for the Pony Express and later served in the American Civil War. In 1867-68 he hunted buffalo to feed construc¬ tion crews for the Union Pacific Rail¬ road; he became known as Buffalo Bill after slaughtering 4,280 head of buffalo in eight months. He was a scout for the U.S. 5th Cavalry (1868-72,1876) as it subdued Indian resistance. His exploits, including the scalping of the Cheyenne warrior Yellow Hair in 1876, were chronicled by reporters and novel¬ ists, who made him a folk hero. He began acting in dramas about the West, and in 1883 he organized his first Wild West Show, which included stars such as Annie Oakley and Sitting Bull. The show toured in the U.S. and abroad to wide acclaim.

Coe, Sebastian (Newbold) (b. Sept. 29, 1956, London, Eng.) Brit¬ ish runner. He won his first major race in 1977. He first ran against his rival Steve Ovett in 1978, and the two dominated middle-distance racing in the 1980s. Coe won a total of four Olympic medals (1980, 1984) and set eight world records. From 1992 to 1997 he served as a Conservative member in the House of Commons; in 2000 he was elevated to the House of Lords. Coe also was involved with several athletic organizations.

coeducation Education of males and females in the same school. A modern phenomenon, it was adopted earlier and more widely in the U.S. than in Europe, where tradition proved a greater obstacle to its acceptance. In the 17th century Quaker and other reformers in Scotland, northern England, and New England began urging that girls as well as boys be taught to read the Bible. By the later 18th century girls were being admit¬ ted to town schools. By 1900 most U.S. public high schools and some 70% of colleges and universities were coeducational. Pioneering institutions in the U.S. included Oberlin College, Cornell University, and the University of Iowa. In Europe the Universities of Bologna and London and various Scandinavian institutions were the first to open their doors. Other Euro¬ pean countries adopted coeducational policies after 1900, and many com¬ munist countries instituted strong coeducational programs.

coelacanth Vse-l3-,kanth\ Any lobe-finned bony fish of the order Cros- sopterygii. Members of an extinct suborder are considered to have been

the ancestors of land vertebrates. Modern coelacanths (genus Latimeria ) are deep-sea fishes with hollow fin spines. They are powerful, heavy¬ bodied predators, with highly mobile, limblike fins. They average 5 ft (1.5 m) in length and weigh about 100 lbs (45 kg). Coelacanths appeared about 350 million years ago and were thought to have become extinct 80 mil¬ lion years ago until one was caught in 1938 near the southern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. A second species was discovered living near Indonesia in 1998.

Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae)

PETER GREEN-ARDEA PHOTOGRAPHICS

coelenterate See cnidarian

Coen, Joel and Ethan (respectively b. Nov. 29, 1955, St. Louis Park, Minn., U.S.; b. Sept. 21, 1958, St. Louis Park) U.S. filmmakers. The brothers were brought up in Minnesota but moved to New York City to write scripts for independent films. Their own first film, Blood Simple (1984), a stylish thriller, was followed by such notable works as Raising Arizona (1987), Miller’s Crossing (1990), Barton Fink (1991), Fargo (1996, Academy Award for direction and screen writing), The Big Leb- owski (1998), and O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000). With Joel serving as director and Ethan as producer, they cowrote all their screenplays, which reflected their offbeat blend of well-paced drama and macabre humour.

coenzyme \,ko-'en-zIm\ Any of a number of freely diffusing organic compounds that function as cofactors with enzymes in promoting a vari¬ ety of metabolic reactions. Coenzymes participate in enzyme-mediated catalysis in stoichiometric (MOLE-for-mole) amounts, are modified during the reaction, and may require another enzyme-catalyzed reaction to restore them to their original state. Examples include nicotinamide adenine dinu¬ cleotide (NAD), which accepts hydrogen (and gives it up in another reac¬ tion), and ATP, which gives up phosphate groups while transferring chemical energy (and reacquires phosphate in another reaction). Most of the B vitamins (see vitamin B complex) are coenzymes and are essential in facilitating the transfer of atoms or groups of atoms between molecules in the formation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. See also metabolism; STOICHIOMETRY.

Coercive Acts See Intolerable Acts

Coetzee \kut-'se\, J(ohn) M(ichael) (b. Feb. 9, 1940, Cape Town, S.Af.) South African novelist. Coetzee taught English at the University of Cape Town, translated works from the Dutch, and wrote literary criti¬ cism before publishing his first book, Dusklands (1974). He won inter¬ national fame with In the Heart of the Country (1977) and Waiting for the Barbarians (1980), in which he attacked the legacy of colonialism; they were followed by The Life and Times of Michael K (1983, Booker Prize), which concerns a man of limited intelligence caught in a civil war; Foe (1986), a twist on Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe; the autobiographical Boyhood (1997); and others. Among his nonfiction works are Giving Offense: Essays on Censorship (1996) and The Lives of Animals (1999). In 1999 he became the first writer to win the Booker Prize twice when he received the award for his novel Disgrace (1999). In 2003 Coetzee won the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Coeur \'kcer\, Jacques (b. c. 1395, Bourges, Fr.—d. Nov. 25, 1456, probably Chios in the Aegean Sea) French merchant and royal official. A member of the council of King Charles VII, he was put in charge of tax collection, and was ennobled in 1441. He built a great commercial empire

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428 I cofactor ► cognitivism

that dealt in salt, silks, and many other commodities, and with his huge wealth he funded the king’s reconquest of Normandy (1450) and made loans to many aristocrats. Falsely accused of poisoning the king’s mis¬ tress and of dishonest speculation, he was arrested in 1451 but escaped to Italy. He died while commanding a naval expedition against the Turks.

cofactor An atom, organic molecule, or molecular group that is neces¬ sary for the catalytic activity (see catalysis) of many enzymes. A cofactor may be tightly bound to the protein portion of an enzyme and thus be an integral part of its functional structure, or it may be only loosely associ¬ ated and free to diffuse away from the enzyme. Cofactors of the integral kind include metal atoms—such as iron, copper, or magnesium —or mod¬ erately sized organic molecules called prosthetic groups; many of the lat¬ ter contain a metal atom, often in a coordination complex (see transition element). Removal of the cofactor from the enzyme’s structure causes loss of its catalytic activity. Loosely associated cofactors are called coenzymes; examples include most members of the vitamin B complex. Rather than directly contributing to the catalytic ability of an enzyme, coenzymes par¬ ticipate with the enzyme in the catalytic reaction. Sometimes this distinc¬ tion in definition is no longer made, and coenzyme is used in the broader sense of cofactor.

coffee Tropical evergreen shrub of the genus Coffea, in the madder family, or its seeds, called beans; also the beverage made by brewing the roasted and ground beans with water. Two of the 25 or more species, C. arabica and C. canephora, supply almost all the world’s coffee. Arabica coffee is considered to brew a more flavourful and aromatic beverage than Robusta, the main variety of C. canephora. Arabicas are grown in Central and South America, the Caribbean, and Indonesia, Robustas mainly in Africa. The shrub bears bouquets of small white flowers with a jasminelike fra¬ grance. The fruit, 0.5-0.75 in. (13-19 mm) long and red when mature, is called a cherry. Coffee contains large amounts of caffeine, the effects of which have always been an important element in the drink’s popularity. Coffee drinking began in 15th-century Arabia. It reached Europe by the mid 17th century and immediately became hugely popular. Coffee is now consumed by about one-third of the world’s population.

coffer In architecture, a square or polygonal ornamental sunken panel used in a series as decoration for a ceiling or vault. Coffers were prob¬ ably originally formed by wooden beams crossing one another to pro¬ duce a grid. The earliest surviving examples were made of stone by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Coffer¬ ing was revived in the Renaissance and was common in Baroque and Neoclassical architecture.

cofferdam Watertight enclosure from which water is pumped to expose the bed of a body of water in order to permit the construction of a pier or other hydraulic work. Coffer¬ dams are made by driving metal sheetpiling (a series of thin, inter¬ locking panels) into the bed to form a watertight fence. Roman engineers used cofferdams to found the piers of their arch bridges and aqueducts. See also CAISSON.

Coffin, Levi (b. Oct. 28, 1798,

New Garden, N.C., U.S.—d. Sept. 16, 1877, Cincinnati, Ohio) U.S. abo¬ litionist. Despite little formal education, he became a teacher. As a devout Quaker, he opposed slavery. In 1826 he moved to Newport, Ind., where he made his home into a depot of the Underground Railroad and used much of his wealth as a merchant to help the escaping slaves. In 1847 he moved to Cincinnati, where he opened a store selling goods made only by free labour. He continued his work with the Underground Railroad until the outbreak of the American Civil War; he then worked to aid liberated slaves.

cogeneration In power systems, use of steam for both power genera¬ tion and heating. High-temperature, high-pressure steam from a boiler and superheater first passes through a turbine to produce power. It is exhausted at a temperature and pressure suitable for heating purposes, instead of being expanded in the turbine to the lowest possible pressure and then

discharged to the condenser, which would waste the remaining energy in the steam. The steam at the higher pressure can provide large amounts of lower-temperature energy for heating buildings or evaporating brine in a chemical plant. Considerable overall energy savings can be obtained by cogeneration. See also steam engine.

cogito, ergo sum Latin "I think, therefore I am" Dictum coined in 1637 by Rene Descartes as a first step in demonstrating the attainability of certain knowledge. It is the only statement to survive the test of his methodic doubt. The statement is indubitable, Descartes argued, because even if an all-powerful demon were to try to deceive him into thinking he exists when he does not, Descartes would have to exist in order to be deceived. Therefore, whenever he thinks, he exists. Furthermore, Des¬ cartes maintained, the statement “I am” (sum) expresses an immediate intuition, not the conclusion of a process of reasoning, and is thus indu¬ bitable.

cognac \'kon-,yak\ Brandy from the French departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime. Tracing its origin to the 17th century, cognac (named for the town of Cognac) is distilled from white wine in special pot stills (alembics) and aged in Limousin oak. Most cognacs spend from one and one-half to five years in wood, though rarer varieties may age much longer.

cognition Act or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. Philosophers have long been interested in the relationship between the knowing mind and external reality; psychologists took up the study of cognition in the 20th century. See also cognitive psychology; cognitive science; philosophy of mind.

cognitive dissonance Mental conflict that occurs when beliefs or assumptions are contradicted by new information. The concept was intro¬ duced by the psychologist Leon Festinger (1919-89) in the late 1950s. He and later researchers showed that, when confronted with challenging new information, most people seek to preserve their current understanding of the world by rejecting, explaining away, or avoiding the new information or by convincing themselves that no conflict really exists. Cognitive dis¬ sonance is nonetheless considered an explanation for attitude change.

cognitive psychology Branch of psychology devoted to the study of human cognition, particularly as it affects learning and behaviour. The field grew out of advances in Gestalt, developmental, and comparative psy¬ chology and in computer science, particularly information-processing research. Cognitive psychology shares many research interests with cog¬ nitive science, and some experts classify it as a branch of the latter. Con¬ temporary cognitive theory has followed one of two broad approaches: the developmental approach, derived from the work of Jean Piaget and concerned with “representational thought” and the construction of men¬ tal models (“schemas”) of the world, and the information-processing approach, which views the human mind as analogous to a sophisticated computer system.

cognitive science Interdisciplinary study that attempts to explain the cognitive processes of humans and some higher animals in terms of the manipulation of symbols using computational rules. The field draws par¬ ticularly on the disciplines of artificial intelligence, psychology (see cog¬ nitive psychology), linguistics, neuroscience, and philosophy. Some chief areas of research in cognitive science have been vision, thinking and rea¬ soning, memory, attention, learning, and language processing. Early theo¬ ries of cognitive function attempted to explain the evident compositionality of human thought (thoughts are built up of smaller units put together in a certain way), as well as its productivity (the process of putting together a thought from smaller units can be repeated indefinitely to produce an infinite number of new thoughts), by assuming the exist¬ ence of discrete mental representations that can be put together or taken apart according to rules that are sensitive to the representations’ syntac¬ tic, or structural, properties. This “language of thought” hypothesis was later challenged by an approach, variously referred to as connectionism, parallel-distributed processing, or neural-network modeling, according to which cognitive processes (such as pattern recognition) consist of adjust¬ ments in the activation strengths of neuronlike processing units arranged in a network.

cognitivism In metaethics, the thesis that the function of moral sen¬ tences (e.g., sentences in which moral terms such as “right,” “wrong,”

Baroque coffered ceiling of the cupola of S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, designed by Francesco Borro¬ mini, 1638-41

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Cohan ► coke i 429

and “ought” are used) is to describe a domain of moral facts existing independently of our subjective thoughts and feelings, and that moral statements can accordingly be thought of as objectively true or false. Cognitivists typically try to support their position by seeking out analo¬ gies between moral discourse, on the one hand, and scientific and every¬ day factual discourse, on the other. Cognitivism is opposed by various forms of noncognitivism, all of which have in common the denial of the cognitivist claim that the function of moral sentences is to state or describe facts.

Cohan \'ko- l han\ / George M(ichael) (b. July 3, 1878, Providence, R.I., U.S.—d. Nov. 5, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actor, songwriter, playwright, and producer. Cohan with his parents and sister performed in vaudeville as The Four Cohans.

He began writing for the New York stage in the early 1900s; his musical Little Johnny Jones (1904; film,

1930) included the classics “Give My Regards to Broadway” and “Yankee Doodle Dandy.” Among his later productions were The Gover¬ nor’s Son (1901), The Talk of New York (1907), Broadway Jones (1912), Seven Keys to Baldpate (1913), and American Born (1925).

He later appeared in shows such as Ah, Wilderness! (1933) and I’d Rather Be Right (1937). His best- known songs include “You’re a Grand Old Flag,” “Mary’s a Grand Old Name,” and the famous World War I recruiting song “Over There,” for which he was awarded a special Congressional medal in 1940. Cohan was the subject of the film Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) and the musical George M! (1968).

cohen \'ko-3n\ or kohen \ko-'han, ko-'hen\ (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. Before King Josiah’s reign (7th century bc), the high priest alone could enter the Holy of Holies on Yom Kippur. Lower-ranking priests accompa¬ nied the army in war or administered the Temple. The priestly class was strongest during the period of the Second Temple and was curtailed after its destruction. The rabbinate has replaced the kohanim as authorities on the Law, but kohanim retain some privileges (except in Reform Judaism).

coherentism Theory of truth according to which a belief is true just in case, or to the extent that, it coheres with a system of other beliefs. Philosophers have differed over the relevant sense of “cohere,” though most agree that it must be stronger than mere consistency. Among rival theories of truth, perhaps the oldest is the correspondence theory, which holds that the truth of a belief consists in its correspondence with inde¬ pendently existing facts. In epistemology, coherentism contrasts with foundationalism, which asserts that ordinary beliefs are justified if they are inferrable from a set of basic beliefs that are justified immediately or directly. Coherentism often has been combined with the idealist doctrine that reality consists of, or is knowable only through, ideas or judgments (see idealism).

Cohn, Edwin Joseph (b. Dec. 17, 1892, New York, N.Y, U.S.—d. Oct. 1, 1953, Boston, Mass.) U.S. biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and taught at Harvard 1922-53. He studied the components of protein molecules, correlating their structures with their physical properties and determining basic principles that became the foun¬ dation for the further study of proteins. In World War II he headed a team that devised methods of large-scale production of human plasma fractions for treatment of the wounded.

Cohn, Ferdinand (Julius) (b. Jan. 24, 1828, Breslau, Silesia, Prussia—d. June 25, 1898, Breslau) German naturalist and botanist, con¬ sidered one of the founders of bacteriology. He received a Ph.D. from the University of Berlin at age 19. His early research centred on the single- celled algae, and his accounts of the life histories of various algae spe¬ cies are of permanent value. He was among the first to attempt to arrange bacteria into genera and species on a systematic basis. Among his most striking contributions was his discovery of the formation and germination

of spores in certain bacteria. During his lifetime Cohn was recognized as the foremost bacteriologist of his day.

Cohn, Harry (b. July 23, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 27, 1958, Phoenix, Ariz.) U.S. film producer and cofounder of Columbia Pic¬ tures. He worked for a film distributor before cofounding C.B.C. Film Sales Co. (1920), later named Columbia Pictures Corp. In 1932 he became president of the company, which he built into a major studio. Though he came to epitomize the ruthless philistine movie mogul, he was credited with discovering many stars, including Rita Hayworth, and promoting such directors as Frank Capra.

Cohnheim, Julius Friedrich (b. July 20, 1839, Demmin, Prussia—d. Aug. 15, 1884, Leipzig) German pioneer of experimental pathology. While assisting Rudolf Virchow, he confirmed that inflammation results from passage of leukocytes through capillary walls into tissues and that pus is mainly debris from their disintegration. His induction of tubercu¬ losis in a rabbit’s eye led to Robert Koch’s discovery of the tuberculosis bacillus. His Lectures on General Pathology (2 vol., 1877-80) far out¬ lasted contemporary texts. His method of freezing tissue for thin slicing for microscopic examination is a standard clinical procedure.

coho or silver salmon Species ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) of salmon prized for food and sport that ranges from the Bering Sea to Japan and the Salinas River of Monterey Bay, Cal. It weighs about 10 lbs (4.5 kg) and is recognized by the small spots on the back and upper tail-fin lobe. Young cohos stay in freshwater for about one year before entering North Pacific waters; they mature in about three years. Some landlocked popu¬ lations spend their entire lives in freshwater. Cohos were successfully transplanted in the 1970s into Lake Michigan as a game fish.

coin collecting Systematic accumulation and study of coins, tokens, paper money, and objects of similar form and purpose. The long-held view that coin collecting began with the Italian Renaissance has been chal¬ lenged by growing evidence that the activity is far more venerable. There exist a variety of literary accounts of collecting from ancient Greek and Roman sources, and there is tangible archaeological evidence that coins have been collected at least from the Roman era. Collecting was perhaps less important during the Middle Ages, but during the 15th-16th centuries it again became more popular, mostly among European aristocrats. In the 17th century the nature of collecting shifted slowly toward serious research. As a result, very broad collections were formed, studied, and catalogued. In the 20th century museums took over the main task of form¬ ing large collections of great detail and range. It was also during this time that a popular market for coins began to develop. Previously only the very wealthy purchased ancient coins and the number of sources were few. London became the world’s largest numismatic market, serving the inter¬ ests of public collections and private collectors in many lands. The Inter¬ net became an important aspect of coin collecting in the late 1990s, both because it afforded a virtual marketplace that permitted buyers and sellers from anywhere in the world to trade in coins and for the educational effect of the many Web sites devoted to the hobby. See also philately.

coinage Certification of a piece of metal or other material (such as leather or porcelain) by a mark or marks upon it as being of a specific intrinsic or exchange value. Croesus (r. c. 560-546 bc) is generally cred¬ ited with issuing the first official government coinage of certified purity and weight. Counterfeiting was widespread in the Middle Ages. In the late 15th century, equipment capable of providing coins of reliable weight and size was developed in Italy. The Industrial Revolution saw further refinements in coinage techniques. Most of the basic motifs of modern coinage were introduced in antiquity. In the Greek world, relief imprint¬ ing gradually replaced the roughly impressed reverse punch of the Lydi¬ ans. Alexander the Great introduced the coin-portrait; these initially depicted gods or heroes and later living monarchs. Until the end of the 19th century, Chinese coins were cast much like those of the early Greeks; the square-holed Chinese bronze coins were issued in essentially the same size and shape for almost 2,500 years.

coitus See sexual intercourse

coke Solid residue remaining after certain types of coals are heated to a high temperature out of contact with air until substantially all components that easily vaporize have been driven off. The residue is chiefly carbon, with minor amounts of hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. Also present in coke is the mineral matter in the original coal, chemically altered and decomposed. The gradual exhaustion of timber in England

George M. Cohan.

PICTORIAL PARADE

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430 I Coke ► Cole

had led first to prohibitions on cutting of wood for charcoal and eventu¬ ally to the introduction of coke. Thereafter the iron industry expanded rapidly and Britain became the world’s greatest iron producer (see Abra¬ ham Darby). The crucible process (1740) resulted in the first reliable steel made by a melting process. Oven coke (about 1.5-4 in., or 40-100 mm, in size) is used in blast furnaces to make iron. Smaller quantities of coke are used in other metallurgical processes (see metallurgy), such as the manufacture of certain alloys. Large, strong coke, known as foundry coke, is used in smelting. Smaller sizes of coke (0.6-1.2 in., or 15-30 mm) are used to heat buildings.

Coke \kuk\, Sir Edward (b. Feb. 1, 1552, Mileham, Norfolk, Eng.—d. Sept. 3, 1634, Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire) British jurist and politi¬ cian. He became a lawyer in 1578 and was made solicitor general in 1592. His advance to the position of attorney general (1594) frustrated his great rival, Francis Bacon. As attorney general, he conducted several famous treason trials, prosecuting Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, and Henry Wriothesley, 3rd earl of Southampton (1600-01); Sir Walter Raleigh (1603); and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators (1605). Named chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas in 1606, Coke earned the ire of James I by declaring that the king’s proclamation could not change the law (1610). He upset church leaders by limiting the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts. Appointed chief justice of the King’s Bench by James I (1613), he remained unswayed; he hinted at scandal in high places and defied a royal injunction in a case involving ecclesiastical privileges. He was dis¬ missed in 1616, partly through Bacon’s efforts. In 1620 he reentered Par¬ liament (he had served in 1589), where he denounced interference with Parliament’s liberties (1621) until he was imprisoned. In 1628 he helped frame the Petition of Right, a charter of liberties; this defense of the supremacy of the common law over royal prerogative had a profound influence on the English law and constitution. On his death his papers were seized by Charles I. His Reports (1600-15), taken together, are a monumental compendium of English common law, and his Institutes of the Lowes of England (4 vol., 1628-44) is an important treatise.

Cola di Rienzo Vk6-la-de-'ryent-so\ orig. Nicola di Lorenzo (b.

1313, Rome—d. Oct. 8, 1354, Rome) Italian revolutionary leader. The son of a tavern keeper, he became a minor Roman official. He plotted a revolution to restore the glory of ancient Rome, declared himself tribune in 1347, and began to rule Rome as a dictator. Cola made judicial and political reforms and prepared for the election of a Roman emperor of Italy. The nobles rose against him, however, and the pope declared him a heretic. He fled to the mountains, then traveled to Prague to ask Charles IV for help. He was arrested (1352) but was absolved of heresy by the Inquisition. Given the title of senator, he was sent back to Rome in 1354 to help restore papal authority there. He ruled arbitrarily and was soon killed by a mob. A novel of his life by Edward Bulwer-Lytton was made into an opera by Richard Wagner.

Cola dynasty or Chola dynasty South Indian Tamil rulers of unknown antiquity (before c. ad 200). The dynasty originated in the rich Cauvery (Kaveri) River valley, and Uraiyur (Tiruchchirappalli) was its oldest capital. The Cola country stretched from the Vaigai River in the south to Tondaimandalam in the north. Under Rajendracola Deva I (r. 1014-44), the conquest of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) was completed, the Dec- can was conquered (c. 1021), and an expedition was sent as far north as the Ganges (Ganga) River (1023). His successor battled the Calukya dynasty in the Deccan. The Pandyas conquered the Cola country in 1257, and the dynasty ended in 1279. Revenue administration, village self- government, and irrigation were highly organized under the Colas.

cola nut See kola nut

Colbert \kol-'borV Claudette orig. Lily Claudette Chauchoin (b.

Sept. 13, 1903, Paris, France—d. July 30, 1996, Cobblers Cove, Barb.) French-born U.S. actress. She made her Broadway debut in 1923 and her film debut in Frank Capra’s For the Love of Mike (1927). After winning stardom with It Happened One Night (1934, Academy Award), she played the sophisticated heroine of several other comedies, including Midnight (1939) and The Palm Beach Story (1942), and played dramatic roles in Imitation of Life (1934) and Since You Went Away (1944). She made more than 60 films and later appeared occasionally on Broadway and in tele¬ vision dramas.

Colbert \kol-'ber\, Jean-Baptiste (b. Aug. 29, 1619, Reims, France—d. Sept. 6, 1683, Paris) French statesman. He was recommended to Louis XIV by Jules Mazarin, whose personal assistant he had been. He

engineered the downfall of Nicolas Fouquet, and thereafter he served the king both in his private affairs and in the administration of the kingdom.

As controller general of finance from 1665, he brought order to financial operations, reformed the chaotic sys¬ tem of taxation, and reorganized industry and commerce. As secretary of state for the navy from 1668, he undertook to make France a great power at sea. He also sought to pro¬ mote emigration to Canada and to enhance France’s power and prestige in the arts. Though a series of wars prevented the fulfillment of all his reforms, he strengthened the monar¬ chy and improved the country’s pub¬ lic administration and economy, helping make France the dominant power in Europe.

Colchester ancient Camulodunum City and borough (pop., 2001: 155,794), southeastern England. In ancient times, the city was the capital of the powerful pre-Roman ruler Cunobelinus. After his death, the enmity of his sons toward Rome encouraged the Roman invasion of Britain, and it became the first Roman colony there, founded by Claudius c. ad 43. Burned by Boudicca’s warriors c. ad 60, it was reestablished and received its first charter in 1189. In the 13th century it was a major port. It has a long history in both cloth making and oyster trading. It is the site of England’s largest castle keep (built c. 1080), which now houses a museum of Romano-British antiquities.

Colchis Vkal-kosX Ancient region on the Black Sea. Now the western part of the Republic of Georgia, Colchis was in Greek mythology the home of Medea and the destination of the Argonauts. Historically, it was colonized by Milesian Greeks with the support of the native Colchians, whose ethnic composition is unclear. After the 6th century bc it was nominally controlled by Persia; it passed to Mithradates VI Eupator, the king of Pontus, in the 1st century bc and later came under Roman rule.

Cold War Open yet restricted rivalry and hostility that developed after World War II between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The U.S. and Britain, alarmed by the Soviet domination of East¬ ern Europe, feared the expansion of Soviet power and communism in Western Europe and elsewhere. The Soviets were determined to maintain control of Eastern Europe, in part to safeguard against a possible renewed threat from Germany. The Cold War (the term was first used by Bernard Baruch during a congressional debate in 1947) was waged mainly on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. It was at its peak in 1948-53 with the Berlin blockade and airlift, the formation of NATO, the victory of the communists in the Chi¬ nese civil war, and the Korean War. Another intense stage occurred in 1958-62 with the Cuban missile crisis, which resulted in a weapons buildup by both sides. A period of detente in the 1970s was followed by renewed hostility. The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in

cold, common Viral infection of the upper and sometimes the lower respiratory tract. Symptoms, which are relatively mild, include sneezing, fatigue, sore throat, and stuffy or runny nose (but not fever); they usually last only a few days. About 200 different strains of virus can produce colds; they are spread by direct or indirect contact. The cold is the most com¬ mon of all illnesses; the average person gets several every year. Incidence peaks in the fall. Treatment involves rest, adequate fluid intake, and over- the-counter remedies for the symptoms. Antibiotics do not combat the virus but may be given if secondary infections develop.

Cole, Nat King orig. Nathaniel Adams Coles (b. March 17, 1917, Montgomery, Ala., U.S.—d. Feb. 15, 1965, Santa Monica, Calif.) U.S. jazz pianist and singer. Cole grew up in Chicago and formed a trio in Los Angeles (1939), establishing himself as a major jazz piano stylist. Commercial success, however, came with his singing. His warm, relaxed voice brought a personal touch to the ballads and light swing in which he specialized. “Mona Lisa” and “Unforgettable” were among his major hits of the 1950s. He excelled as a stage personality, and he was also a capable film actor.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, detail of a bust by Antoine Coysevox, 1677; in the Louvre, Paris.

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Cole ► Coligny I 431

Cole, Thomas (b. Feb. 1, 1801, Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, Eng.—d. Feb. 11, 1848, Catskill, N.Y., U.S.) British-born U.S. landscape painter, founder of the Hudson River school. After immigrating to the U.S. with his family in 1819, he studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In 1825 Asher B. Durand began purchasing his work and finding him patrons. After settling in Catskill, N.Y., Cole traveled throughout the northeast making pencil sketches of the scenery, from which he later pro¬ duced finished paintings in his studio. He is famous for his views of the Hudson Valley, as well as for grandiose imaginary vistas.

Colebrook, Leonard (b. March 2, 1883, Guildford, Surrey, Eng.—d. Sept. 29, 1967, Farnham Common, Buckinghamshire) English medical researcher. He introduced (1935) the use of Prontosil, the first sulfona¬ mide antibacterial drug, as a cure for puerperal fever. He also researched burn treatment, proving that sulfonamides and penicillin could control infection, urging wider use of skin grafting, and bringing the problem of tissue rejection to the attention of Peter Medawar.

Coleman, (Randolph Denard) Ornette (b. March 9, 1930, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.) U.S. saxophonist and composer, the principal initia¬ tor and leading exponent of free jazz. Coleman began playing the saxo¬ phone as a teenager and soon became a working musician in dance bands and rhythm-and-blues groups. He abandoned harmonic patterns in order to improvise more directly upon melodic and expressive elements; because the tonal centres of such music changed at the improviser’s will, it became known as “free jazz.” His organized collective improvisation in such recordings as Free Jazz (1960) placed him firmly in the jazz avant- garde. In the 1970s he began composing orchestral music and also formed an electric band called Prime Time, with which he was active until the 1990s.

Coleraine \kol-'ran\ District (pop., 2001: 56,315), Northern Ireland. Established in 1973, it is primarily an agricultural area. Flint implements found there date back to nearly 7000 bc and provide the earliest evidence of human occupation in Ireland. The administrative centre, Coleraine town, on the River Bann, was colonized by companies from the City of London in the 17th century; it is the seat of the New University of Ulster (founded 1965).

Coleridge \'kol-rij\, Samuel Taylor (b. Oct. 21, 1772, Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire, Eng.—d. July 25,

1834, Highgate, near London)

English poet, critic, and philosopher.

Coleridge studied at the University of Cambridge, where he became closely associated with Robert Southey. In his poetry he perfected a sensuous lyricism that was echoed by many later poets. Lyrical Ballads (1798; with William Wordsworth), containing the famous “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and “Frost at Mid¬ night,” heralded the beginning of English Romanticism. Other poems in the “fantastical” style of the “Mari¬ ner” include the unfinished “Christa- bel” and the celebrated “Pleasure Dome of Kubla Khan.” While in a bad marriage and addicted to opium, he produced “Dejection: An Ode”

(1802), in which he laments the loss of his power to produce poetry.

Later, partly restored by his revived Anglican faith, he wrote Biographia Literaria , 2 vol. (1817), the most significant work of general literary criti¬ cism of the Romantic period. Imaginative and complex, with a unique intellect, Coleridge led a restless life full of turmoil and unfulfilled pos¬ sibilities.

Colet Vka-loA, John (b. 1466/67, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 16, 1519, Sheen, Surrey) British theologian. He studied mathematics and philoso¬ phy at Oxford and extended his studies abroad. Returning to England, he became ordained, sometime before 1499. He was appointed dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral in 1504 and founded St. Paul’s School around 1509. One of the chief Tudor humanists, he promoted Renaissance culture in England and influenced such humanists as Desiderius Erasmus, St. Thomas More, and Thomas Lnacre.

Colette \ko-'let\ in full Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette (b. Jan. 28, 1873, Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye,

France—d. Aug. 3, 1954, Paris)

French writer. Her first four Clau- dine novels (1900-03), the reminis¬ cences of a libertine ingenue, were published by her first husband, an important critic, under his pen name,

Willy. After separating from him, she worked as a music-hall performer, a life she fictionalized in The Vaga¬ bond (1910). Among her mature works are Cheri (1920), My Moth¬ er’s House (1922), The Ripening Seed (1923), The Last of Cheri (1926), Sido (1930), and Gigi (1944; musical film, 1958), a comedy about a girl reared to be a courtesan. Her novels of the pleasures and pains of love are remarkable for their exact evocation of sounds, smells, tastes, textures, and colours. In her highly eventful life, she freely flouted convention and repeatedly scandalized the French public, but by her late years she had become a national icon.

coleus Any member of the Old World tropical plant genus Coleus, con¬ taining about 150 species, in the mint family, best known for its colourful foliage. Varieties of C. blumei, from Java, are well-known houseplants and garden plants. They have square stems and small, blue, two-lipped flowers in spikes. Bush coleus (C. thrysoideus ), from Central Africa, pro¬ duces sprays of bright blue flowers. Others are variously known as flame nettle, painted leaves, painted nettle, Spanish thyme, Indian borage, coun¬ try borage, and flowering bush.

Colfax, Schuyler (b. March 23, 1823, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Jan. 15, 1885, Mankato, Minn.) U.S. politician. He founded the St. Joseph Valley Register, which became one of Indiana’s most influential newspa¬ pers during his editorship (1845-63). He was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives (1854-69), where he served as speaker (1863-69) and a leader of the Radical Republicans. His vice presidency under Pres. Ulysses S. Grant (1869-73) was marred by his implication in the Credit Mobilier scandal (1872).

Colgate-Palmolive Co. Diversified U.S. company that manufactures household, health-care, and personal care products. It began in the early 19th century, when William Colgate, a soapmaker and candlemaker, began selling his wares in New York City. His company sold the first toothpaste in a tube in 1908, and in 1928 it was bought by the makers of Palmolive soap. Its current name was adopted in 1953. Its headquarters are in New York City.

Colgate University Private university in Hamilton, N.Y. It was founded in 1819 as a Baptist-affiliated institution but became independent in 1928. It offers primarily a liberal arts curriculum for undergraduates, with some master’s degree programs in arts and teaching. Women were first admitted in 1970 and now represent half of the student body.

colic \'ka-lik\ Any sudden, violent pain, especially that produced by con¬ traction of the muscular walls of a hollow organ whose opening is partly or completely blocked. In infants, intestinal colic is characterized by drawing up of the legs, restlessness, and constant crying. Colic may accompany enteritis (intestinal inflammation) or an intestinal tumour, as well as certain forms of influenza. Colic caused by spastic bowel con¬ tractions is common in lead poisoning. Treatment, aimed at symptom relief, often includes use of a muscle relaxant.

coliform bacteria Vko-ls-.formX Rod-shaped bacteria usually found in the intestinal tracts of animals, including humans. Coliform bacteria do not require but can use oxygen, and they do not form spores. They pro¬ duce acid and gas from the fermentation of lactose sugar. Their presence in the water supply indicates recent contamination by human or animal feces. Chlorination is the most common preventive water treatment.

Coligny \ I ko- 1 len-'ye,\E«g//5/i\k3-Ten-y9\, Gaspard II de, lord de Chatillon (b. Feb. 16, 1519, Chatillon-sur-Loing, France—d. Aug. 24, 1572, Paris) French soldier and leader of the Huguenots in the French Wars of Religion. He served in the Italian campaign (1544), won renown

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, detail of an oil painting by Washington Allston, 1814; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

Colette, 1937.

CHARLES LEIRENS/BLACK STAR

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

432 i Colima ► Collins

for his skill and bravery, and was made admiral of France (1552). He announced his support for the Refor¬ mation in 1560, joined the fight when civil war broke out in 1562, and became sole leader of the Huguenots in 1569. Later he began to exert influence over Charles IX and came to be seen as a threat by Cathe¬ rine de Medicis. After Catherine’s attempt to instigate his assassination failed, she convinced the king that the Huguenots were plotting to retaliate against Charles himself.

Charles then ordered the deaths of Coligny and the Huguenot leaders in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day.

Colima \ko-'le-m3\ State (pop.,

2000: 542,627), western Mexico.

Covering 2,004 sq mi (5,191 sq km), which includes the Revillagigedo Islands, its capital is Colima city.

Situated along the Pacific coast, most of the small state lies in the narrow coastal plain, beyond which it rises into the foothills of the Sierra Madre. The soil is generally fertile and productive, but a lack of transportation has impeded development. Agriculture is the principal occupation; live¬ stock raising is important in the highlands.

Colima City (pop., 2000: 119,639), capital of Colima state, Mexico. Located in west-central Mexico, it lies on the Colima River in the foot¬ hills of the Sierra Madre. Founded in 1522, it has played only a minor role in Mexican history because of its inaccessibility. Its industries centre on processing local agricultural products. It is the site of the University of Colima (1867).

collage \ka-'lazh\ (from French colter, “to glue”) Pictorial technique of applying printed or found materials (e.g., newspaper, fabric, wallpaper) to a flat surface, often in combination with painting. Long popular as a pas¬ time for children and amateurs, it was first given serious attention as an art technique by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in 1912-13. Many other 20th-century artists produced collages, including Juan Gris, Henri Matisse, Joseph Cornell, and Max Ernst. In the 1960s collage was employed as a major form of Pop art, exemplified in the work of Robert Rauschenberg.

collagen Vka-lo-jonX Any of a class of organic compounds, the most abundant proteins in the animal kingdom, occurring widely in tendons, ligaments, dentin (see tooth), cartilage, and other connective tissues. Their molecules share a triple-helix configuration. Collagens occur as whitish, inelastic fibres of great tensile strength and low solubility in water. Soluble when first synthesized (the form used in personal-care preparations), col¬ lagen changes to a more stable, insoluble form. Glue made from collagen in animal hides and skins is a widely used adhesive. Specially treated forms of collagen are used in medicine and surgery (including lip implants and other cosmetic surgery), in prostheses, and as sausage casings. Col¬ lagen is converted to gelatin by boiling it in water.

collard Headless form of cabbage (Brassica oleracea, Acephala group), in the mustard family. It bears the same botanical name as kale, differing only in that collard leaves are much broader, are not frilled, and resemble the rosette leaves of head cabbage. The main stem has a rosette of leaves at the top. Lower leaves commonly are harvested progressively; some¬ times the entire young rosette is harvested. The leaves are highly nutri¬ tious, rich in minerals and in vitamins A and C.

collective bargaining Process of negotiation between representa¬ tives of workers (usually labour union officials) and management to deter¬ mine the conditions of employment. The agreement reached may cover not only wages but hiring practices, layoffs, promotions, working condi¬ tions and hours, and benefit programs. Collective bargaining developed in England at the end of the 18th century. Although collective bargaining agreements are common in many countries, they are more scarce in devel¬ oping countries that have large pools of surplus labour. Contract negotia¬ tions may occur at the national, regional, or local level, depending on the structure of industry within a country. See also labour union; strike.

collective farm Russian kolkhoz. In the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land. Under the policy of collectivization, which was pursued most intensively by Joseph Stalin in 1929-33, peasants were forced to give up their individual farms and join large collective farms. They objected violently and in many cases slaughtered their livestock and destroyed their equipment before joining. By 1936 almost all the peasantry had been collectivized, though millions had also been deported to prison camps. With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1990-91, the collective farms began to be privatized.

collectivism Any of several types of social organization that ascribe central importance to the groups to which individuals belong (e.g., state, nation, ethnic group, or social class). It may be contrasted with individu¬ alism. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the first modem philosopher to discuss it (1762). Karl Marx was its most forceful proponent in the 19th century. Communism, fascism, and socialism may all be termed collectivist systems. See also communitarianism; kibbutz; moshav.

college Institution that offers postsecondary education. The term has various meanings. In Roman law a collegium was a body of persons asso¬ ciated for a common function. The name was used by many medieval institutions, including guilds. In most universities of the later Middle Ages, collegium meant an endowed residence hall for university students. The colleges kept libraries and scientific instruments and offered salaries to tutors who could prepare students to be examined for degrees. Eventually few students lived outside colleges, and college teaching eclipsed univer¬ sity teaching. In England, secondary schools (e.g., Winchester and Eton) are sometimes called colleges. Canada also has collegiate schools. In the U.S., college may refer to a four-year institution of higher education offering a bachelor’s degree, or to a two-year junior or community college with a program leading to the associate’s degree. A four-year college usu¬ ally emphasizes a liberal arts or general education rather than specialized technical or vocational preparation. The four-year college may be an inde¬ pendent private institution or an undergraduate division of a university.

collider See particle accelerator

collie Breed of working dog developed in Great Britain, probably by the 18th century. The rough-coated vari¬ ety was originally used to guard and herd sheep; the smooth-coated vari¬ ety was used to drive livestock to market. Both varieties are lithe dogs with a tapering head, almond-shaped eyes, and erect ears that tip forward at the ends. They stand 22-26 in.

(56-66 cm) tall, weigh 50-75 lb (23-34 kg), and may be variously coloured. See also border collie.

Collingwood, R(obin)

G(eorge) (b. Feb. 22, 1889, Cart- mel Fell, Lancashire, Eng.—d. Jan.

9, 1943, Coniston, Lancashire) British historian and philosopher. A lec¬ turer, and later professor, at the University of Oxford (1912—41), he was a leading authority on the archaeology and history of Roman Britain. He believed that “the chief business of 20th-century philosophy is to reckon with 20th-century history” and that philosophy and history are both a matter of discovering fundamental presuppositions. In his most influen¬ tial work. The Idea of History (1946), he maintained that historical think¬ ing requires explanation as part of any description and that it is the philosopher’s task to articulate and justify historical methodology. He is viewed as a seminal thinker in the philosophy of history.

Collins, Michael (b. Oct. 16, 1890, Clonakilty, County Cork, Ire.—d. Aug. 22, 1922, Beal-na-Blath, Cork) Irish national leader. He worked in London (1906-16), then returned to fight in the Easter Rising. Elected as a member of Sinn Fein to the Irish assembly (1918), he became the Irish republic’s first minister of home affairs. He was general of the volunteers and director of intelligence of the Irish Republican Army in the Anglo-Irish War. In 1921 he signed the controversial Anglo-Irish Treaty, which gave Ireland dominion status, though with provisions for partition and for an oath of allegiance to the crown. He and Arthur Griffith then became lead¬ ers of the provisional government. When civil war broke out, Collins commanded the government forces fighting the anti-treaty republicans, and on Griffith’s death he became head of the government. Ten days later he was killed in an ambush at age 31.

Gaspard II de Coligny, detail of a por¬ trait by an unknown artist, 16th cen¬ tury; in the Musee Conde, Chantilly, France.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEE CONDE, CHANTILLY, FRANCE; PHOTOGRAPH, GIRAUDON-ART RESROUCE, NEW YORK

Collie

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Collins > colon I 433

Collins, (William) Wilkie (b. Jan. 8, 1824, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 23, 1889, London) English novelist. After working briefly in commerce and law, he took up writing and became associated with Charles Dickens, who had a formative influence on his career. For two works, he is remem¬ bered as one of the first and best writers of English mystery novels. The Woman in White (1860), inspired by an actual criminal case, made him famous. The Moonstone (1868), one of the first English detective novels, introduced features that became conventions in the genre.

colloid \'ka-,l6id\ Substance consisting of particles that, although too tiny to be seen with the unaided eye (typically 1 nanometre to 10 microme¬ tres), are substantially larger than atoms and ordinary molecules and that are dispersed in a continuous phase. Both the dispersed phase and the continuous phase may be solid, liquid, or gas; examples include suspen¬ sions, aerosols, smokes, emulsions, gels, sols, pastes, and foams. Colloids are often classified as reversible or irreversible, depending on whether their components can be separated. Dyes, detergents, polymers, proteins, and many other important substances exhibit colloidal behaviour.

Collor de Mello Vko-'lor-do-'me-luX, Fernando (Affonso) (b. Aug. 12, 1949, Rio de Janeiro, Braz.) President of Brazil (1990-92). Bom to wealth, he became governor of the small state of Alagoas in 1987. Prom¬ ising to promote economic growth and combat corruption and inefficiency, he defeated the leftist Luiz Silva in 1989 to become Brazil’s first popularly elected president in nearly 30 years. The country’s economic decline, fueled by a staggering foreign debt and hyperinflation, failed to improve, and he resigned in 1992 as his trial for corruption was about to begin.

Colman, Ronald (Charles) (b. Feb. 9, 1891, Richmond, Surrey, Eng.—d. May 19, 1958, Santa Barbara, Calif., U.S.) British-U.S. film actor. He began a stage and film career in England then moved in 1920 to the U.S., where he first won notice in The White Sister (1923). A romantic leading man, he appeared in other silent films such as Beau Geste (1926), and he easily made the transition to sound movies with his cultivated, expressive voice. His most notable films include Arrowsmith (1931), A Tale of Two Cities (1935), Lost Horizon (1937), If I Were King (1938), Random Harvest (1942), and A Double Life (1947, Academy Award).

Colmar, Charles Xavier Thomas de See Charles X. T. de Colmar

colobus Vka-lo-bosN monkey Any of 10 species of long-tailed, essen¬ tially thumbless African Old World monkeys in the genus Colobus (family Cercopithecidae). Colobus monkeys are diurnal, generally gregarious veg¬ etarians. They make long leaps from tree to tree. The four species of black- and-white colobus are 22-24 in. (55-60 cm) long, excluding the 30-32-in. (77-82-cm) tail. They are slender and have a long, silky coat. The five spe¬ cies of red colobus are brown or black with red markings and are 18-24 in. (46-60 cm) long, excluding the 16-31-in. (40-80-cm) tail. The olive colo¬ bus has short, olive-coloured fur. Several races of red colobus are consid¬ ered endangered; other colobus species are vulnerable or rare.

Cologne \ko-'lon\ German Koln \'koeln\ City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 967,900; metro, area, 1,823,500), western Germany. Located on the Rhine River, it is one of Europe’s key inland ports. First settled by Romans in the 1st century bc, its commercial importance grew out of its location on the major European trade routes. In the Middle Ages it also became an ecclesiastical centre and an important hub of art and learning. Despite its almost complete destruction in World War II, the city retains some build¬ ings and monuments of all periods. Its cathedral, the largest Gothic church in northern Europe, is its unofficial symbol. Banking has been an impor¬ tant industry since the Middle Ages. Eau de cologne, first produced com¬ mercially in the 18th century, is still made there. The city is also a major media centre, with many publishing houses and production facilities for radio and television. It is famous for its pre-Lenten Carnival.

Colombia officially Republic of Colombia Country, northwestern South America. Area: 440,762 sq mi (1,141,568 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 42,954,000. Capital: Bogota. About half the population are mesti¬ zos; most of the rest are of European-African, European, or African ances¬ try. Language: Spanish (official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic). Currency: peso. The topography is dominated by the Andes Mountains. To the south and east lie vast lowlands, drained by the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. Colombia’s developing economy is based primarily on services, agriculture, and manufacturing, coffee being the principal cash crop. Coca (for the production of cocaine) and opium pop¬ pies (for the production of heroin) are grown and trafficked illicitly on a large scale. Rich in minerals, Colombia is the world’s largest producer of

emeralds and one of South America’s larg¬ est producers of gold. It is a multiparty loo 260 300km republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the presi¬ dent. Its earliest known inhabitants were Chibchan-speaking Indians. The Spanish arrived c. 1500 and by 1538 had conquered the area and made it subject to the Viceroyalty of Peru. After 1740 authority was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada. Parts of Colombia threw off Spanish jurisdiction in 1810, and full independence came after Spain’s defeat by revolutionary leader Simon Bolivar in 1819. Civil war in 1840 slowed development. Conflict between the Liberal and Conservative parties led to the War of a Thousand Days (1899-1903). Years of relative peace followed, but hostility erupted again in 1948; the two parties agreed in 1958 to a plan for alternating govern¬ ments. A new constitution was adopted in 1991, but democratic power remained threatened by civil unrest, which continued into the early 21st century and at the violent centre of which were powerful drug cartels, leftist guerrillas, and right-wing paramilitary groups.

Colombo Nka-'lom-boV City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 642,163), administra¬ tive capital of Sri Lanka. Situated on the western coast of the island, it is a major port with one of the largest artificial harbours in the world. The area was settled in the 8th century by Arab traders. A fort was established by the Portuguese in 1518, and the town was occupied by the Dutch in 1656 and the English in 1796. It became the capital of the island in 1815. Western influence diminished after Sri Lanka gained its independence in 1948. A commercial and industrial centre, Colombo has manufacturing industries that produce machinery and process food products. It is home to the University of Colombo (founded 1921).

Colombo \k6-'lom-bo\, Matteo Realdo (b. 15167, Cremona [Italy]—d. 1559, Rome) Italian anatomist and surgeon. He is credited with the discovery of pulmonary circulation. On Things Anatomical (1559), his only formal written work, includes a description of how the heart pumps blood and outlines the pulmonary circulation and the return of bright-red blood to the heart from the lungs.

colon \'ko-lon\ Segment that makes up most of the large intestine. Though the two terms are often used interchangeably, the colon technically excludes the cecum (a pouch at the beginning of the large intestine), rec¬ tum, and anal canal. It runs up the right side of the abdomen (ascending colon), across it (transverse colon), and down the left side (descending colon); its last section (sigmoid colon) joins the rectum. It has no diges¬ tive function but lubricates waste products, absorbs remaining fluids and salts, and stores waste products until excretion. Problems involving the colon include ulcerative colitis, constipation and diarrhea, gas discomfort, megacolon (enlarged colon), and cancer.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

434 I Colonial National Historical Park ► colorimetry

Colonial National Historical Park Historical reservation, south¬ eastern Virginia, U.S. Covering some 15 sq mi (38 sq km) and centred on a peninsula between the York and James rivers, it was first established as a national monument in 1930 and includes colonial and Revolutionary sites. It embraces Cape Henry, Jamestown, and Yorktown and includes the Colonial Parkway, a 23-mi (37-km) scenic route linking Jamestown, Wil¬ liamsburg, and Yorktown.

colonialism Control by one power over a dependent area or people. The purposes of colonialism include economic exploitation of the colo¬ ny’s natural resources, creation of new markets for the colonizer, and extension of the colonizer’s way of life beyond its national borders. The most active practitioners were European countries; in the years 1500- 1900, Europe colonized all of North and South America and Australia, most of Africa, and much of Asia by sending settlers to populate the land or by taking control of governments. The first colonies were established in the Western Hemisphere by the Spanish and Portuguese in the 15th— 16th century. The Dutch colonized Indonesia in the 16th century, and Britain colonized North America and India in the 17th—18th century. Later British settlers colonized Australia and New Zealand. Colonization of Africa only began in earnest in the 1880s, but by 1900 virtually the entire continent was controlled by Europe. The colonial era ended gradually after World War II; the only territories still governed as colonies today are small islands. See also decolonization, dependency, imperialism.

colonnade Row of columns generally supporting an entablature, used either as an independent feature (e.g., a covered walkway) or as part of a building (e.g., a PORTICO). The earliest colonnades appear in the temple architecture of ancient Greece. In a basilica, colonnades are used to sepa¬ rate the side aisles from the central space. See also stoa.

colony In antiquity, any of the new settlements established in territory conquered by the Greeks (8th-6th century bc), Alexander the Great (4th century bc), and the Romans (4th century bc-ad 2nd century). Greek colonies extended to Italy, Sicily, Spain, the eastern Mediterranean (including Egypt), and the Black Sea. Alexander pushed even farther into Central Asia, South Asia, and Egypt. Roman colonization covered much of the same area and regions south to northern Africa, west to Spain, and north to Britain and Germany. Reasons for colonizing included expansion of trade, acquisition of raw materials, resolution of political unrest or overpopulation, and craving for land and rewards. Colonies retained ties and loyalty to Rome, though rebelliousness was not uncommon. In Roman colonies after 177 bc, colonists retained Roman citizenship and could exercise full political rights. Ancient colonization spread Hellenic and Roman culture to the far reaches of the empires, often assimilating local populations, some of whom acquired Roman citizenship.

colony In zoology, a group of organisms of one species that live and interact closely with each other in an organized fashion. A colony differs from an aggregation, in which the group has no cooperative or organized function. Colonies of social insects (e.g., ants, bees) usually include castes with different responsibilities. Many birds form temporary breeding colo¬ nies, in some cases to stimulate reproductive activities, in others to make the best use of a limited breeding habitat and to coordinate efforts in pro¬ tecting nests from predators. Certain mammals that live in close groups are said to be colonial, though they lack cooperative activities and each maintains a territory.

Colophon \'ka-l3-,fan\ Ancient Ionian Greek city, western Anatolia. Located 15 mi (25 km) northwest of the ancient city of Ephesus, it was a flourishing commercial city in the 8th-5th centuries bc, famous for its cavalry, its luxury, and its production of rosin. A member of the Delian League, during the Peloponnesian War it was controlled first by the Per¬ sian Achaemenian dynasty and then by Athens, and it was conquered in 302 bc by Macedonia under Alexander the Great. Only a few foundations of the old walled city are now visible.

Colorado Group of Indian people of Ecuador’s Pacific coast. In the tropical lowlands where the Colorado traditionally have lived, they and the neighbouring Cayapas are the last remaining aboriginal groups. The Colorado (Spanish: “red”), so named because of their use of red pigment to decorate their faces and bodies, have been fishermen, hunters, and shifting cultivators; some, however, have taken up work on plantations, and others have migrated to work in the city.

Colorado State (pop., 2000: 4,301,261), west-central U.S. Bordered by Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Utah, it cov¬

ers 104,100 sq mi (269,619 sq km); its capital is Denver. Lying astride the Rocky Mountains, the state has three physiographic regions: the plains, a semiarid segment of eastern Colorado; the Colorado Piedmont in the cen¬ tral part of the state, where most of the population lives; and the south¬ ern Rocky Mountains and mesas of western Colorado. Its large urban population has grown faster than the national average. Its original inhab¬ itants were Plains and Great Basin Indians, including the Arapaho, Chey¬ enne, and Ute. The area was claimed by Spain in 1706 but later passed in large part to France. Eastern Colorado was part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; the remainder stayed in Spanish and, after independence, Mexi¬ can hands until 1848. Gold was discovered in 1859 and touched off a population boom. Organized as the territory of Colorado in 1861, it achieved U.S. statehood in 1876. Agriculture, cattle production, and min¬ ing, as well as manufacturing, are important to the economy. Government military installations and service industries have become prominent, and tourism is a major source of the state’s income (see Aspen; Boulder; Vail).

Colorado National Monument Natural area, western Colorado, U.S. Established in 1911, the 32-sq-mi (83-sq-km) scenic area is known for its colourful, wind-eroded sandstone formations, towering monoliths, and steep-walled canyons. Petrified logs and dinosaur fossils have been found in the area. Rim Rock Drive skirts the canyon walls, which rise more than 6,500 ft (1,980 m).

Colorado potato beetle or potato bug Leaf beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata, family Chrysomelidae) native to western North America. It began feeding on the leaves of cultivated potatoes when the plants were introduced into western North America, and by 1874 it had become an important and widespread pest. It has a hemispherical body, about 0.4 in. (10 mm) long, and is orange-red or yellow, with black stripes on the wing covers. Depending on climate, potato beetles may produce one to three generations each year.

Colorado River River, south-central Argentina. Its major headstreams, the Grande and Barrancas rivers, flow southward from the Andes Moun¬ tains and meet to form the Colorado near the Chilean border. It flows southeastward across northern Patagonia and the southern Pampas. Its lower course splits into two arms that flow into the Atlantic Ocean south of Bahia Blanca. Its total length is about 530 mi (850 km).

Colorado River River, western Texas, U.S. It flows southeast 862 mi (1,387 km) through prairie, hill, and canyon country past Austin and across the coastal plain to enter Matagorda Bay. The river, the largest entirely within Texas, is the site of flood-control, power, irrigation, and recre¬ ational projects.

Colorado River River, North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, U.S., it flows west and south 1,450 mi (2,330 km) to empty into the Gulf of California in northwestern Mexico. It drains a vast sector of the North American continent, about 246,000 sq mi (637,000 sq km). No other river in the world has cut so many deep trenches, of which the Grand Canyon is the largest and most spectacular. It is important for hydroelectric power and irrigation; more than 20 dams, including Hoover Dam, have been built on the Colorado River and its tributaries.

Colorado Springs City (pop., 2000: 360,890), central Colorado, U.S. Standing on a mesa near the eastern base of Pikes Peak, it was founded in 1871 as Fountain Colony and later renamed for nearby mineral springs. Growth followed the Cripple Creek gold strikes in the 1890s. Military installations gave further impetus to development: it is home to the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and the U.S. Space Command, headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base (established 1942); Fort Carson (1942); and the U.S. Air Force Academy (1958). The Garden of the Gods, a natural park with red sandstone monoliths, is one of many scenic attractions.

colorectal cancer Malignant tumour of the large intestine (colon) or rectum. Risk factors include age (after age 50), family history of colorec¬ tal cancer, chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, benign polyps, physical inactivity, and a diet high in fat. Many of the symptoms are associated with abnormal digestion and elimination. Colorectal cancer is treated by surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy.

colorimetry ^ko-lo-'ri-mo-treV Measurement of the intensity of electro¬ magnetic radiation in the visible spectrum transmitted through a solution or transparent solid. It is used to identify and determine the concentrations of substances that absorb light of a specific wavelength or colour accord¬ ing to Lambert’s law, which relates the amount of light absorbed to the

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

colossal order ► Columban I 435

distance traveled through the absorbing medium, and Beer’s law, relating it to the concentration of absorbing substance in the coloured solution. A photocell is often used to measure the amount of light transmitted through a glass tube containing the solution to be analyzed; the result is compared with results from a similar tube containing solvent alone. Most elements and many compounds, in appropriately treated samples, may be identified by colorimetry or spectrophotometry, a closely related technique.

colossal order or giant order Architectural order in which the col¬ umns extend beyond one interior story, often through several stories.

Though giant columns were used in antiquity, they were first applied to building facades in Renaissance Italy. Any of the orders might be treated in this manner. The colossal order was revived in 18th-century Europe.

Colosseum Flavian Amphitheater in Rome, erected c. ad 70-82 under the emperors Vespasian and Titus. The name Colosseum was applied some time after the 8th century because of its immense size and capacity, hold¬ ing some 50,000 people. Unlike ear¬ lier amphitheaters, which were nearly all dug into hillsides for extra support, the Colosseum is a free¬ standing oval colonnaded structure of stone and concrete. It was the scene of combats between gladiators, contests of men with animals, and even mock naval engagements. The Colosseum was damaged by lightning and earthquakes in medieval times and, even more severely, by vandals. A restoration project was undertaken in the 1990s, and in 2000 the Colosseum staged a series of plays that marked the first time in more than 1,500 years that live performances had been held there.

Colossus of Rhodes See Colossus of Rhodes

colostomy \k9-Tas-t3-me\ Surgical formation of an artificial anus by making an opening from the colon through the abdominal wall. It may be done to decompress an obstructed colon, to allow excretion when part of the colon must be removed, or to permit healing of the colon. Colos¬ tomy may be temporary or permanent. A sigmoid colostomy, the most common type of permanent colostomy, requires no appliances (though a light pouch is sometimes worn for reassurance) and allows a normal life except for the route of fecal excretion. See also ostomy.

colour Aspect of any object that may be described in terms of hue, brightness, and saturation. It is associated with the visible wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, which stimulate the sensor cells of the eye. Red light has the longest wavelengths, while blue has the shortest, with other colours such as orange, yellow, and green between. Hue refers to domi¬ nant wavelengths. Brightness refers to the intensity or degree of shading. Saturation pertains to purity, or the amount of white light mixed with a hue. The colours red, yellow, and blue, known as primary colours, can be combined in varying proportions to produce all other colours. Primary colours combined in equal proportions produce secondary colours. Two colours that combine to form white light are said to be complementary.

colour blindness Inability to distinguish one or more colours. The human retina contains three types of cone cells that absorb light in dif¬ ferent parts of the spectrum. Absence of these types causes colour blind¬ ness to red, green, and blue. Colour blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait (see recessiveness) 20 times more common in men than in women.

colour index In igneous petrology, the sum of the volume percentages of the coloured, or dark, minerals in the rock. The most common light- coloured minerals are feldspars, feldspathoids, and silica or quartz; abun¬ dant dark-coloured minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, garnet, tourmaline, iron oxides, sulfides, and metals.

colour printing Specialized printing technique using coloured inks and modified presses. Juxtaposition of colours is achieved by submitting each sheet to successive impressions by typeforms each of which prints only

on areas designed to carry a single colour and inked only in that colour. Three colours of ink can reconstitute the visual effect of all the range of colours by combining them appropriately; if all three inks are applied to an area, it almost appears black. Standard colour printing, called four- colour printing, employs magenta, yellow, cyan (blue), and black inks.

Colt, Samuel (b. July 19, 1814, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. Jan. 10, 1862, Hartford) U.S. inventor. He worked in his father’s textile factory before going to sea in 1830. On a voyage to India he conceived the idea for his first revolver, which he later patented (1835-36). Colt’s six- shooters were slow to gain acceptance, and his company in Paterson, N.J., failed in 1842. He invented a naval mine with the first remotely controlled explosive in 1843 and conducted a telegraph business that used the first underwater cable. Soldiers’ favourable reports prompted an order for 1,000 pistols during the Mexican War, and Colt resumed manufacture in 1847. Assisted by Eli Whitney, Jr., he advanced the development of inter¬ changeable parts and the assembly une. His firm, based in Hartford, pro¬ duced the revolvers most widely used in the American Civil War and in the settlement of the West, including the famous Colt .45.

Colter, John (b. c. 1775, in or near Staunton, Va.—d. 1813, in present- day Missouri, U.S.) U.S. explorer. A member of the Lewis and Clark Expe¬ dition (1803-06), in 1807 he was sent to make contact with Indian tribes in the Yellowstone River area; he became the first white man to see and describe the region. In three expeditions to the head of the Missouri River (1808-10), he narrowly escaped death in battles with Indians. He retired to a farm on the Missouri.

Colton, Gardner (Quincy) (b. Feb. 7, 1814, Georgia, Vt., U.S.—d. Aug. 9, 1898, Rotterdam, Neth.) U.S. anesthetist and inventor. He was among the first to use nitrous oxide as an anesthetic in dentistry; after a dentist suggested it, he safely used it in extracting thousands of teeth. He also invented an electric motor, exhibited in 1847.

Coltrane, John (William) (b. Sept. 23,1926, Hamlet, N.C., U.S.—d. July 17, 1967, Huntington, N.Y.)

U.S. saxophonist and composer.

After growing up in Philadelphia, he gained early experience in the bands of Dizzy Gillespie and Johnny Hodges.

Associations with Miles Davis and Thelonious Monk in the 1950s estab¬ lished Coltrane’s place in the van¬ guard of modem jazz, and his quartet of the early 1960s is one of the out¬ standing groups in jazz history. His style encompassed the modal jazz first explored with Davis, the com¬ plex chord structures of his own compositions, and ultimately the extremes of timbre, dynamics, and register associated with free jazz.

Coltrane’s total mastery of the tenor and soprano saxophones, the rich harmonic density of his composi¬ tions, and his clear projection of emotion enabled him to reconcile technical virtuosity with an often spiritual profundity.

Columba, Saint or Colum or Columcille Vksl-om-.kiH (b. c. 521, Tyrconnell—d. June 8/9, 597, Iona; feast day June 9) Irish abbot and mis¬ sionary. A member of the warrior aristocracy, he was excommunicated for his part in a bloody battle. Exiled, he set out to do penance as a mission¬ ary. He founded two famous monasteries in Ireland before taking 12 dis¬ ciples to the Scottish island of Iona (c. 563), where they built a church and monastery that served as a base for the conversion of the Scottish Picts, and thereby Scotland, to Christianity.

Columban, Saint (b. c. 543, Leinster, Ireland—d. Nov. 23, 615, Bob- bio, Italy; feast day November 23) Irish abbot and missionary. One of the greatest missionaries of the Celtic church, he initiated a revival of spiri¬ tuality on the European continent. He left Ireland c. 590 with 12 monks, and the Merovingian king Guntram granted him land in the Vosges Moun¬ tains in Gaul, where he established several monasteries, including the great intellectual and religious house at Luxeuil. He was disciplined for keeping Easter according to the Celtic usage, and he ran afoul with the Frankish clergy for his indictment of their moral laxity. He was forced

Colossal order, court facade of Blen¬ heim Palace, Oxfordshire, England, by Sir John Vanbrugh, begun 1705

John Coltrane, 1966.

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436 I Columbia ► Comanche

into exile for his criticism of the sins of the powerful queen Brunhild and her court and then moved into what is now Switzerland, where he preached to the Alemanni. He later settled in Italy and founded the mon¬ astery of Bobbio (c. 612), a centre of medieval culture known for its great library.