Britannica Concise 2005

ratchet

ratchet

wheel

Principal parts of a traditional hand loom.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

loon or diver Any of four species (genus Gavia ) of diving birds of North America and Eurasia. Loons range in length from 2 to 3 ft (60-90 cm). They have small pointed wings, webs between the front three toes, legs placed far back on the body, making walking awkward, and thick plumage that is mainly black or gray above and white below. They feed mainly on fishes, crustaceans, and insects. Almost wholly aquatic, they can swim long distances underwater and can dive to a depth of 200 ft (60 m). They are generally found singly or in pairs, but some species winter or migrate in flocks. They are known for their eerie, “laughing” cries.

looper or cankerworm or inch worm Larva of any member of a large, widespread group (mostly in the family Geometridae, with some in the family Noctuidae) of moths. Loopers move in a characteristic “inch¬ ing” or “looping” gait by extending the front part of the body and bring¬ ing the rear up to meet it. Resembling twigs or leaf stems, they feed on foliage, and can seriously damage or destroy trees.

Loos Vlos\, Adolf (b. Dec. 10, 1870, Brno, Moravia, Austria- Hungary—d. Aug. 23, 1933, Kalksburg, near Vienna, Austria) Austrian architect. Educated in Dresden, Ger., he practiced in Vienna, though he spent extended periods in the U.S. and Paris. Opposed to both Art Nou¬ veau and Beaux-Arts historicism, he announced as early as 1898 his inten¬ tion to avoid the use of unnecessary ornament. His Steiner House in Vienna (1910) has been referred to by some architectural historians as the first completely modem dwelling; the main (rear) facade is a symmetri¬ cal, skillfully balanced composition of rectangles. His essays from this period, denouncing ornament and decoration, were equally influential. His best-known large structure is the Goldman and Salatsch Building in

Common loon, or great northern diver (Gavia immer)

WAYNE LANKINEN-BRUCE COLEMAN LTD.

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1136 I Loos ► Loren

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Vienna (1910), in which small amounts of Classical detail are offset by large areas of blank, polished marble. His work strongly influenced Euro¬ pean Modernist architects after World War I.

Loos, Anita (b. April 26, 1893?, Sissons, Calif., U.S.—d. Aug. 18, 1981, New York, N.Y.) U.S. novelist and screenwriter. She was a child actress; at an early age she also began contributing sketches and articles to various periodicals. By age 20 she was a professional screenwriter for silent films. Her first novel, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1925), brought fame to Loos and her central character, the naive gold digger Lorelei Lee; a musical version (1949) starred Carol Channing (b. 1921), and a film (1953) starred Marilyn Monroe. Loos’s later film scripts included Blos¬ soms in the Dust (1941) and I Married an Angel (1942). She also wrote two memoirs, A Girl Like I (1966) and Kiss Hollywood Good-Bye (1974).

loosestrife Any ornamental plant of the family Lythraceae, especially in the genera Lythrum and Decodon , and two genera of the primrose fam¬ ily (. Lysimachia and Steironema ). Purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ), native to Eurasia, grows 2-6 ft (0.6-1.8 m) high on riverbanks and in ditches. Its branched stem bears whorls of narrow, pointed, stalkless leaves and ends in tall, tapering spikes of red-purple flowers. Introduced into North America early in the 19th century, it has become a noxious weed in many parts of the U.S. and Canada because its dense growth out- competes native wetland vegetation that provides food and habitat for wildlife.

Lopez (Michelsen), Alfonso (b. June 30, 1913, Bogota, Colom.) President of Colombia (1974-78). Son of a former president, he served as senator, governor, and foreign minister before his 1974 landslide vic¬ tory in Colombia’s first competitive presidential election in 16 years. A liberal, he raised taxes on high incomes and took steps to curb inflation, but the elimination of price subsidies and a rise in unemployment led to labour unrest, land seizures by peasants, and guerrilla activity. In 1982 he was defeated in another run for the presidency.

Lopez (Knight), Nancy (b. Jan. 6, 1957, Torrance, Calif., U.S.) U.S. golfer. She left the University of Tulsa (Okla.) after her sophomore year to become a professional golfer. In her first full season in 1978, she won a record total of nine tournaments, including five in a row. She became a three-time winner of the Ladies’ Professional Golf Association (LPGA) championship (1978, 1985, 1989) and a four-time LPGA Player of the Year. Her success and personality helped rejuvenate women’s golf.

Lopez Portillo \'l6- 1 pez-por- , te-yo\ (y Pacheco), Jose (b. June 16, 1920, Mexico City, Mex.—d. Feb. 17, 2004, Mexico City) President of Mexico (1976-82). He was a professor before joining the governments of Gustavo Diaz Ordaz and Luis Echeverrfa. As president, he emphasized attraction of foreign investment, tax concessions to stimulate industrial development, creation of nonagricultural jobs, and exploitation of oil and natural gas. His most significant political reform was to increase partici¬ pation of minority parties, facilitating later challenges to the Institutional Revolutionary Party. Most of the wealth that flowed from expanded oil exports was squandered or pocketed by government and union officials. His administration was discredited by the huge foreign debt it amassed and charges of corruption. See also Pemex.

loquat \To-,kwat\ Subtropical evergreen tree (Eriobotrya japonica) of the rose family, related to the apple and other well-known fruit trees of the temperate zone. Usually less than 33 ft (10 m) tall, it is common in parks and gardens, often trained to ornamental flattened shapes by espalier. Dense, fragrant, white flow¬ ers grow beyond clusters of leaves with serrated edges. The small yellow-orange fruits have a pleasant, mildly acid taste; they are eaten fresh, stewed, or as jelly or liqueur.

The loquat is grown commercially (usually on a small scale) in many subtropical regions.

loran abbreviation of long- range navigation A land-based system of radio navigation in common use over the continental United States and in its coastal waters. It was developed during World War II for

the U.S. military. A civilian version, Loran-C, was developed in the 1950s. Loran-C can be used to determine position within about 30 ft (10 m) by comparing signals from multiple stations. Loran-like systems operate in many coastal waters around the world. However, the availability of the global positioning system (GPS), with a typical accuracy of 3 ft (1 m), has begun to relegate loran to backup status.

Lorca, Federico Garcia See Federico Garcia Lorca lord See FEUDALISM

Lord Chamberlain's Men See Chamberlain's Men

lord chancellor British official who heads the judiciary and presides over the House of Lords. Until the 14th century the chancellor served as royal chaplain and king’s secretary. The office acquired a more judicial character in the reign of Edward III (1327-77). Most of the office’s power, exemplified in the administrations of St. Thomas Becket (died 1170) and Thomas, Cardinal Wolsey (died 1530), ceased to exist centuries ago. The judicial work of contemporary chancellors is confined to the House of Lords and the Privy Council. As speaker of the House of Lords, the chan¬ cellor states the question and takes part in debates.

Lord Dunmore's War (1774) Attack by Virginia militia on the Shaw¬ nee in Kentucky. The militiamen seized Fort Pitt on the western border, renaming it after their royal governor, Lord Dunmore, who had ordered attacks against the Shawnee, seen as a threat to white settlers then spread¬ ing into the Indian hunting grounds. Defeated at the Battle of Point Pleas¬ ant, the Shawnee signed a treaty giving up their hunting grounds. The war was probably started to divert Virginians from disagreements with royal administrators; as such, it has been called the first battle of the American Revolution.

Lorde Vlord\, Audre (Geraldine) (b. Feb. 18, 1934, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 17, 1992, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands) U.S. poet and essayist. Bom to West Indian parents, she worked as a librarian until 1968, when she began to write full-time. She is best known for her passionate writings on lesbian feminism and racial issues, including Cables to Rage (1970), New York Head Shop and Museum (1974), and The Black Uni¬ corn (1978), often called her finest work. Her battle with cancer inspired The Cancer Journals (1980) and A Burst of Light (1988, National Book Award).

Lords, House of Upper house of Britain’s bicameral Parliament. From the 13th and 14th centuries it was the house of the aristocracy. Until 1999 its membership included clergy, hereditary peers, life peers (peers appointed by the prime minister since 1958), and the judges of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Britain’s final court of appeal). Though it predates the House of Commons and dominated it for centuries, its power has gradually diminished. Its power to affect revenue bills was constrained by the Parliament Act of 1911, and in 1949 its power to delay by more than a year the enactment of any bill passed by the Commons was revoked. In 1999 the hereditary peers lost their right to sit in the House of Lords, though an interim reform retains their voice in a more limited fashion. The body’s chief value has been to provide additional consider¬ ation to bills that may be not be well formulated.

Lord's Prayer Prayer taught by Jesus to his disciples and used by all Christians as the basic prayer in common worship. It appears in two forms in the New Testament: a shorter version in Luke 11:2—4, and a longer version, part of the Sermon on the Mount, in Matthew 6:9-13. In both contexts it is offered as a model of how to pray. It is sometimes called the Pater Noster (Latin: “Our Father”) for its first two words.

Lorelei \T6r-3-,lI\ Rock on the bank of the Rhine River near Sankt Goars- hausen in Germany. It produces an echo and is associated with the leg¬ end of a beautiful maiden who drowned herself over a faithless lover. She was transformed into a siren who lured fishermen to their death. Clemens Brentano claimed to have invented the essentials of the legend. Heinrich Heine’s poem on the Lorelei has been set to music by more than 25 com¬ posers.

Loren \lo-'ren\, Sophia orig. Sofia Villani Scicolone (b. Sept. 20, 1934, Rome, Italy) Italian film actress. After a poverty-stricken childhood in war-torn Naples, she became a model and movie extra in Rome. Coached by the producer Carlo Ponti (later her husband), she acted in Italian movies from 1950, including The Gold of Naples (1954). Her later films, in which she became noted for her statuesque beauty and earthy femininity, include The Black Orchid (1959), El Cid (1961), Two Women

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica)

G.R. ROBERTS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Lorentz ► Lorre I 1137

(1961, Academy Award), Boccaccio ’70 (1962), Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (1964), Marriage Italian Style (1964), and A Special Day

(1977).

Lorentz Vlor-.entsV Hendrik Antoon (b. July 18, 1853, Arnhem,

Neth.—d. Feb. 4, 1928, Haarlem)

Dutch physicist. He taught at the University of Leiden (1878-1912) and later directed Haarlem’s Teyler Institute. In 1875 he refined James Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electro¬ magnetic radiation so that it explained the reflection and refrac¬ tion of light. Aiming to devise a single theory to explain the relation¬ ship of electricity, magnetism, and light, he later suggested that atoms might consist of charged particles that oscillate and produce light. In 1896 his student Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943) demonstrated this phenom¬ enon (see Zeeman effect), and in 1902 the two men were awarded the sec¬ ond Nobel Prize for Physics. In 1904 Lorentz developed the Lorentz transformations (including the so-called Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction), mathematical formulas that relate space and time measurements of one observer to those of a second observer moving relative to the first. These formed the basis of Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity.

Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction or space contraction In rela¬ tivity physics, the shortening of an object along the direction of its motion relative to an observer. Dimensions in other directions are not contracted. This concept was proposed by the Irish physicist George F. FitzGerald (1851-1901) in 1889 and later independently developed by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. Significant at speeds approaching that of light, the con¬ traction results from the properties of space and time, not from compres¬ sion, cooling, or any similar physical disturbance. See also time dilation.

Lorentz transformations Set of equations in relativity physics that relate the space and time coordinates of two systems moving at a constant speed relative to each other, developed in 1904 by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. Required to describe phenomena approaching the speed of light, these transformations express the concepts that space and time are not absolute; that length, time, and mass depend on the observer’s relative motion; and that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and indepen¬ dent of the motion of the observer or the source.

Lorenz, Edward (Norton) (b. May 23, 1917, West Hartford, Conn., U.S.) U.S. meteorologist. Following degrees from Dartmouth College and Harvard University in mathematics, he turned to weather forecasting in 1942 with the U.S. Army Air Corps. After World War II he joined MIT as a researcher, earned a doctorate in meteorology (1948), and stayed on as a professor. In the early 1960s, he discovered that the weather exhibits a nonlinear phenomenon known as sensitive dependence on initial con¬ ditions (see chaos theory). He explained this phenomenon, which makes long-range weather forecasting impossible, to the public as the “butterfly effect”: in China a butterfly flaps its wings, leading to unpredictable changes in U.S. weather a few days later.

Lorenz \'lor-ents\, Konrad (Zacharias) (b. Nov. 7, 1903, Vienna, Austria—d. Feb. 27, 1989, Altenburg) Zoologist and founder (with Niko¬ laas Tinbergen) of modern ethology. While still a schoolboy he nursed sick animals from the nearby zoo. In 1935 he first elucidated and demonstrated the phenomenon of imprinting in ducklings and goslings. He later exam¬ ined the roots of human aggression (in the best-selling On Aggression, 1963) and the nature of human thought. His other popular works include King Solomon’s Ring (1949) and Man Meets Dog (1950). He shared a 1973 Nobel Prize with Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch.

Lorenzetti \,lo-rant-'set-te\, Pietro and Ambrogio (respectively b. c. 1280/90, Siena?, Republic of Siena—d. c. 1348, Siena; b. c. 1290, Siena, Republic of Siena—d. c. 1348, Siena) Italian painters. Both broth¬ ers were possibly pupils of Duccio di Buoninsegna, whose influence is seen in Pietro’s altarpiece in the Pieve di Santa Maria at Arezzo and in Ambrogio’s early works. Ambrogio’s works reveal an individualistic real¬ ism and preoccupation with three-dimensional space and form, most evi¬

dent in his fresco series in Siena’s Palazzo Pubblico (1338-39). These most important of Sienese frescoes reveal him to be an explorer of per¬ spective and a political and moral philosopher. Pietro’s dramatic frescoes in the lower church of San Francesco at Assisi (c. 1315) show his rela¬ tion to the art of Giotto, though he departs from Giotto in his attention to detail. His Birth of the Virgin and Ambrogio’s Presentation in the Temple, for Siena Cathedral (1342), are notable for their handling of per¬ spective. With Simone Martini, the brothers were the principal exponents of Sienese art in the years before the Black Death, in which both presum¬ ably died.

Lorenzo Monaco Mo-'rent-so-'mo-na-koV orig. Piero di Giovanni

(b. c. 1370/71, Siena, Republic of Siena—d. c. 1425, Florence, Republic of Florence) Italian painter. He took the vows of the Camaldolese order in Florence in 1391 (Monaco means “Monk”), but in 1402 he was enrolled in the painters’ guild there under his lay name and living outside the mon¬ astery. His work combined the graceful lines and decorative feeling of the Sienese school with the traditions of the Florentine school. His Corona¬ tion of the Virgin (1413) reveals his predilection for swirling draperies and rhythmic, curvilinear forms and his understanding of light. His late frescoes in the Bartolini Chapel of Santa Trinita in Florence establish him as a master of Gothic art.

Lorenzo the Magnificent See Lorenzo de’ Medici Lorestan Bronze See Luristan Bronze

loris Any of three species of nocturnal, arboreal primates in the family Lorisidae. Lorises have soft gray or brown fur, huge eyes encircled by dark patches, and no tail. They move slowly and often hang by their feet, leaving their hands free to grasp branches or food. The slender loris ( Loris tardigradus) of India and Sri Lanka is 8-10 in. (20-25 cm) long; it eats insects and small animals. The slow lorises (genus Nycticebus ) of South Asia and the Malay Peninsula eat insects, small animals, fruit, and veg¬ etation. Nycticebus pygmaeus is about 8 in. (20 cm) long; N. coucang is 10.5-15 in. (27-38 cm) long. Habitat degradation and hunting have seri¬ ously depleted loris populations.

Loris-Melikov Vlor-is-'myal-i-koA, Mikhail (Tariyelovich), Count (b. Jan. 1, 1826, Tiflis, Russia—d. Dec. 24, 1888, Nice, France) Russian military officer and statesman. He commanded an army corps to notable victories in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, for which he was made a count. As governor-general of the central Russian provinces (1879), he recommended administrative and economic reforms to allevi¬ ate social discontent. Impressed, Alexander II appointed him minister of the interior (1880) and approved his efforts to liberalize the Russian autoc¬ racy, but the tsar was assassinated before the reforms were enacted. Loris- Melikov resigned when Alexander III rejected his reforms.

Lorrain, Claude See Claude Lorrain

Lorraine Historical duchy of western Europe and government region of France. Originally known as Upper Lorraine and later simply as Lorraine, it was formed by the division of Lorraine (Lotharingia) into two duchies in 959. Upper Lorraine, in the region of the Meuse and Moselle rivers, was ruled by one ducal family from the 11th to the 15th century. Metz, Toul, and Verdun, outside the dukes’ control, were seized by France in 1552. Lorraine came permanently under the French crown in 1766 and was divided into departements in 1790. After the Franco-Prussian War, part of Lorraine was ceded to Germany as part of Alsace-Lorraine. Roughly coextensive with the historical region of Lorraine, the current adminis¬ trative region of Lorraine (pop., 1999: 2,310,376) covers 9,092 sq mi (23,547 sq km). Its capital is Metz.

Lorraine or Lotharingia \ 1 lo-th9- , rin-j9\ Medieval region, present- day northeastern France. By the Treaty of Verdun (843), it became part of the realm of Lothar I. Inherited by his son Lothar, it became the king¬ dom of Lotharingia. After Lothar’s death, it was contested by Germany and France and came under German control in 925.

Lorre V16r-e\, Peter orig. Laszlo Loewenstein (b. June 26, 1904, Rozsahegy, Hung.—d. March 23, 1964, Hollywood, Calif., U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. film actor. He played bit parts with a German the¬ atrical troupe before earning international fame as the psychotic murderer in the German film M (1931). He left Germany in 1933 and made his English-language debut in The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934). He went to Hollywood, where he played malevolent characters in movies such as Mad Love (1935), The Maltese Falcon (1941), Casablanca (1942), and

Sophia Loren in Boccaccio '70 (1962).

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1138 I Los Alamos ► Lotto

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The Beast with Five Fingers (1946). He also starred in the eight Mr. Moto detective movies (1937-39). He later directed and starred in the German film The Lost One (1951).

Los Alamos Town (pop., 2000: 11,909), north-central New Mexico, U.S. It lies on the Pajarito plateau of the Jemez Mountains, northwest of Santa Fe. The site was chosen by the U.S. government in 1942 as the location for the Manhattan Project, which developed the first atomic bomb. After World War II, the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory developed the first nuclear fusion bomb. The town was built to house laboratory employ¬ ees; it is still the site of a major nuclear research facility.

Los Angeles City (pop., 2000: 3,694,820), southern California, U.S. The second largest city in the U.S., it is situated between the San Gabriel Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Bisected by the Santa Monica Moun¬ tains, which separate the neighbourhoods of Hollywood, Beverly Hills, and Pacific Palisades from the San Fernando Valley, it is near the San Andreas Fault, and earthquakes are frequent. It began in 1771 as a Spanish mis¬ sion; in 1781 settlers claimed the land as El Pueblo de la Reyna de los Angeles (the Town of the Queen of the Angels). Taken by U.S. forces in the Mexican War, it prospered in the wake of the 1849 gold rush. Incor¬ porated in 1850, the city grew rapidly after the arrival of the railroads in 1876 and 1885. In 1913 an aqueduct was built to supply it with water from the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. It was struck by a major earthquake in 1994. Sites of interest include early Spanish missions, the Getty Museum, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the Museum of Contemporary Art. Educational institutions include the University of Southern California, Occidental College, and the University of California at Los Angeles.

Los Angeles Times Morning daily newspaper. Established in 1881, it was purchased and incorporated in 1884 by Harrison Gray Otis (1837— 1917) under The Times-Mirror Co. (the hyphen was later dropped from the name). The newspaper prospered and became a power in conserva¬ tive politics in California. It was long dominated by the Chandler family, beginning with Otis’s son-in-law, Harry Chandler, in 1917. After Otis Chandler became publisher in 1960, its editorial policies changed; it developed from a conservative regional paper into a model of balanced and comprehensive journalism and was recognized as one of the world’s great newspapers. The Times Mirror Company was acquired in June 2000 by the Tribune Company of Chicago, and the Chandler family received a significant ownership position in the Tribune Company. (See Chicago Tri¬ bune.)

Los Glaciares \,l6s-gla-'syar-ras\ National Park National park, southwestern Argentina. Located in the Andes Mountains at the Chilean border, it was established in 1937 and has an area of 625 sq mi (1,618 sq km). It has two distinct regions: forests and grassy plains in the east and peaks, lakes, and glaciers in the west. Its highest point is Mount Fitzroy (11,073 ft [3,375 m]).

Lost Generation Group of U.S. writers who came of age during World War I and established their reputations in the 1920s; more broadly, the entire post-World War I American generation. The term was coined by Gertrude Stein in a remark to Ernest Hemingway. The writers considered themselves “lost” because their inherited values could not operate in the postwar world and they felt spiritually alienated from a country they con¬ sidered hopelessly provincial and emotionally barren. The term embraces Hemingway, F. Scon Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, E.E. Cummings, Archibald MacLeish, and Hart Crane, among others.

lost-wax casting Traditional method of producing molds for metal sculpture and other castings. It requires a positive, a core made of refrac¬ tory material and an outer layer of wax. The positive can be produced either by direct modeling in wax over a prepared core (direct lost-wax casting), or by casting in a piece mold or flexible mold taken from a mas¬ ter cast. The wax positive is invested with a mold made of refractory materials and heated to melt the wax, leaving a narrow cavity between the core and the investment. Molten metal is poured into this cavity. When the metal has solidified, the investment and core are broken away. See also INVESTMENT CASTING.

Lot Nephew of Abraham. He emigrated with Abraham from Ur to Canaan and settled in Sodom, a city so evil that God decided to destroy it. Warned by angels of the coming disaster, Lot fled the city with his family. His wife disobeyed God’s orders by looking back at the burning city and was turned into a pillar of salt. Lot later had children by his own daughters,

and they became the founders of the Moabite and Ammonite nations, enemies of Israel. See also Sodom and Gomorrah.

Lot River River, southern France. It flows 300 mi (480 km) west to join the Garonne River near Aiguillon. The river’s course passes Cahors, the old capital of Quercy. It is navigable for part of its course but has little boat traffic.

Lothar \'lo-tar\ I German Lothar (b. 795—d. Sept. 29, 855, Abbey of Priim, Ger.) Frankish emperor. The eldest son of Louis I (the Pious), he was crowned king in Bavaria (814) and coemperor with Louis (817).

Lothar participated in the rebellion against Louis in 830 over the emper¬ or’s efforts to alter the succession plan, and he was returned to Italy after the revolt’s failure. He led a second revolt against his father and deposed him (833), but Louis was restored to power the next year, and Lothar’s rule was restricted to Italy.

On his father’s death (840) he attempted to gain sole control over the Frankish territories, but his brothers, Louis the German and Charles II (the Bald), defeated him (841). The Treaty of Verdun gave Lothar the middle realm, or heart¬ land, of the Frankish dominions (from the North Sea to Italy) and the imperial title.

Lothar II German Lothar (b. early June 1075—d. Dec. 3/4, 1137, Breitenwang) German king (1125-37) and Holy Roman emperor (1133-37). The most powerful noble in Saxony, he took part in revolts (1112-15) against the German king Henry V. Elected king on Henry’s death, he fought a war against the Hohenstaufen who claimed the throne (1125-29); his victory was a triumph for elective monarchy over hereditary succession. Lothar was crowned emperor as a reward for supporting Pope Innocent II (1133). He made peace with the Hohenstaufen (1135) but attacked Roger II of Sicily, driving him out of southern Italy (1136-37).

Lotharingia See Lorraine

Loti \lo-'te\, Pierre orig. Louis-Marie-Julien Viaud (b. Jan. 14, 1850, Rochefort, France—d. June 10, 1923, Hendaye) French novelist. As a naval officer, Loti visited the Middle East and East Asia, which later provided the exotic settings of his novels and reminiscences. His first novel, Aziyade (1879), won him critical and popular success. Other nov¬ els include An Iceland Fisherman (1886), Japan: Madam Chrysanthemum (1887), and Disenchanted (1906). Among his recurring motifs are love, death, and despair at the passing of sensuous life. He reveals his com¬ passion in such works as The Book of Pity and of Death (1890). His themes anticipated some of the preoccupations of French literature between the world wars.

lottery Drawing of lots in which prizes are distributed to the winners among persons buying a chance. A form of gambling, lottery in its mod¬ em form may be traced to 15th-century Europe. The Continental Con¬ gress in 1776 voted to establish a lottery to raise funds for the American Revolution. By the mid-19th century, in the wake of abuses by private organizers, U.S. states began passing antilottery laws. An 1878 Supreme Court opinion held that lotteries had “a demoralizing influence upon the people,” and by the 1890s most had been eliminated. A revival began in the mid-1960s; many state governments seeking revenues instituted offi¬ cially sanctioned, independently audited lotteries. In most such opera¬ tions, the bettor buys a numbered receipt or writes down his or her number choices, a drawing is held, and the winners identify themselves. The value of the prizes is the amount remaining after expenses and the state’s share are deducted from the pool. Winnings are usually subject to taxes. The top prize can grow into the tens of millions, usually causing a buying frenzy as it increases, but the odds against winning remain astronomical.

Lotto, Lorenzo (b. c. 1480, Venice—d. 1556, Loreto, Papal States) Italian painter. He worked in several cities other than Venice and devel-

Lothair I, miniature from his psalter, 9th century; in the British Library (MS.

Add. 37768)

REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF THE BRITISH LIBRARY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

lotus ► Louis VI I 1139

oped an idiosyncratic style. His late Renaissance-style work exhibits a preference for opulent colours and a faculty for narrative painting. His nervous temperament is evident in such works as the Crucifixion in Monte San Giusto (c. 1530), with its highly charged mysticism and crowded composition. Toward the end of his life (1554), he became a lay brother at the Santa Casa in Loreto to escape his critics and his debts. Though primarily a religious painter, he is best known today for his psychologi¬ cally acute portraits.

lotus Any of several different plants whose flowers have been given symbolic meaning by many cultures. The lotus of the Greeks is Ziziphus lotus (family Rhamnaceae), a shrub native to southern Europe; wine made from its fruit was thought to produce contentment and forgetfulness. The Egyptian lotus is a white water uly ( Nymphaea lotus). The sacred lotus of the Hindus is an aquatic plant (Nelumbo nucifera ) with white or delicate pink flowers; the lotus of eastern North America is Nelumbo pentapetala, a similar plant with yellow blossoms. Lotus is also a genus of the pea family (see legume), containing about 100 species found in temperate regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America; the 20 or more spe¬ cies in North America are grazed by animals. The lotus is a common ornament in architecture, and since ancient times it has symbolized fer¬ tility, purity, sexuality, birth, and rebirth of the dead.

Lotus Sutra Text central to the Japanese Tendai (Chinese Tiantai) and Nichiren sects of Mahayana Buddhism. It represents the Buddha as divine and eternal, having attained perfect enlightenment eons ago. All beings are invited to become fully enlightened Buddhas through the grace of innumerable bodhisattvas. Composed largely in verse, the sutra contains many charms and mantras. First translated into Chinese in the 3rd cen¬ tury ad, it was extremely popular in China and Japan, where the simple act of chanting it was thought to bring salvation.

Lou Gehrig disease See amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

loudspeaker or speaker In sound reproduction, device for convert¬ ing electrical energy into acoustical (sound) signal energy that is radiated into a room or open air (see acoustics). The part of the speaker that con¬ verts electrical into mechanical energy is frequently called the motor, or voice coil. The motor vibrates a diaphragm that vibrates the air in imme¬ diate contact with it, producing a sound wave corresponding to the pat¬ tern of the original speech, music, or other acoustic signal. See illustration opposite.

Louganis Uii-'ga-nosV Greg(ory Efthimios) (b. Jan. 29, 1960, San Diego, Calif., U.S.) U.S. diver, considered the greatest diver in history. He was trained early in dancing, tumbling, and acrobatics. During his diving career, he won an unprecedented 47 national and 13 world cham¬ pionships, including two Olympic gold medals (1984) and one silver (1976). In 1982 he became the first diver ever to earn a perfect score of 10, and the following year he received 99 points in springboard compe¬ tition. He was known for his graceful, effortless style. In 1995 he revealed that he had AIDS.

Lough Erne See Lough Erne Lough Neagh See Lough Neagh

Louis Vlii-e\ I known as Louis the Pious (b. April 16, 778, Chasse- neuil, near Poitiers, Aquitaine—d. June 20, 840, Petersau, an island in the Rhine River near Ingelheim) Frankish emperor (814^-0). The son of Charlemagne, he was crowned coemperor with his father in 813 and became emperor in 814 on his father’s death. As emperor, Louis imple¬ mented important religious and cultural reforms and formalized Carolin- gian relations with the pope. He also introduced a plan of succession that sought to preserve the integrity of the empire while respecting the Ger¬ manic tradition of dividing the realm among all heirs. The birth of the future Charles II (Charles the Bald) to his second wife, Judith, and alter¬ ation of the plan of succession provided Louis’s older sons and a number of bishops with an excuse for rebellion. Twice deposed by his sons, he recovered the throne each time (830, 834), but at his death his surviving sons indulged in a bloody civil war that left the Carolingian empire in disarray.

Louis I or Ludwig Vliit-vik\ I (b. Aug. 25, 1786, Strasbourg, France—d. Feb. 29, 1868, Nice) King of Bavaria (1825—48). The son of Maximilian I, Louis won early acclaim as a liberal and a German nationalist, but after his accession he feuded with the Diet and came to distrust all democratic institutions. By 1837 the reactionary Bavarian government had begun to

Components of a loudspeaker. Electrical signals sent through the coil cause it to act as an electromagnet, which is alternately repelled by or attracted to the permanent magnet. This movement causes the cone diaphragm to vibrate, creating sound waves.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

erode the liberal constitution of 1818 that Louis had worked to establish. An outstanding patron of the arts, he collected the art works that fill Munich’s museums and transformed Munich into the artistic centre of Germany. His planning created the city’s present layout and classic style. He caused scandal by his affair with Lola Montez, and at the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian II.

Louis II or Ludwig II also known as Mad King Ludwig (b. Aug. 25, 1845, Nymphenburg Palace, Munich—d. June 13, 1886, Stamberger See, Bavaria) King of Bavaria (1864-86). The son of Maximilian II of Bavaria, he supported Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). He brought his territories into the newly founded German Empire in 1871 but concerned himself only intermittently with affairs of state, preferring a life of increasingly morbid seclusion. A lifelong patron of the composer Richard Wagner, he developed a mania for extravagant building projects; the most fantastic, Neuschwanstein, was a fairy-tale castle decorated with scenes from Wagner’s operas. He drowned himself three days after he was formally declared insane.

Louis IV or Ludwig IV known as Louis the Bavarian (b. 1283, Munich, Ger.—d. Oct. 11, 1347, Munich) German king (1314-47) and uncrowned Holy Roman emperor (1328^-7). As the Luxembourg candi¬ date for emperor, he was opposed by the Habsburg candidate Frederick III of Austria. Both men were elected and crowned king in 1314, and Louis’s forces defeated Frederick’s army in 1322. A conflict with Pope John XXII over the appointment of the imperial vicar in Italy led to his excommunication (1324). To placate his opponents, Louis agreed to rule jointly with Frederick, an arrangement that continued until Frederick’s death (1330). He accepted the imperial crown from the Roman people instead of from the pope (1328) and backed the appointment of an anti¬ pope. In 1346 Pope Clement VI secured the election of a rival king, Charles of Moravia, and Louis died of a heart attack before finishing his prepa¬ rations for war.

Louis VI known as Louis the Fat (b. 1081—d. Aug. 1, 1137) King of France (1108-37). He was effective ruler of France well before the death of his father, Philip I, in 1108, and he spent much time in subduing the unruly French barons. He fought Henry I of England (1104-13, 1116-20) and prevented a threatened invasion by Emperor Henry V (1124). He died

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1140 I Louis VII ► Louis XV style

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a month after arranging his son’s marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, where¬ upon his son succeeded him as Louis VII.

Louis VII known as Louis the Younger (b. c. 1120—d. Sept. 18, 1180, Paris) King of France (1137-80). One of the Capetian kings, he married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1137, thus temporarily extending his king¬ dom to the Pyrenees. Doubtful of her fidelity, he had the marriage annulled in 1152 and, after the death of his second wife, married Alix of Cham¬ pagne, who bore him his son and heir, Philip II Augustus. Eleanor married the future Henry II of England, who took control of Aquitaine and carried on a long rivalry with Louis (1152-74) marked by recurrent warfare and constant intrigue. Louis was joined by Conrad III in leading the Second Crusade (1147-49), which failed in all its objectives.

Louis IX or St. Louis (b. April 25, 1214, Poissy, France—d. Aug. 25, 1279, near Tunis, Tun.; canonized Aug. 11, 1297; feast day August 25) King of France (1226-70). He inherited the throne at age 12. His mother served as regent until 1234, helping to subdue rebellious barons and Albi- gensian heretics (see Cathari). Louis led a Crusade (1248-50) in hopes of regaining Jerusalem and Damascus, but his troops were badly defeated by the Egyptians. On his return he reorganized the royal administrative sys¬ tem and standardized coinage. He built the extraordinary Sainte-Chapelle to house a religious relic believed to be Jesus’ crown of thorns. Louis made peace with the English in the Treaty of Paris (1259), allowing Henry III to keep Aquitaine and neighboring lands but obliging him to declare himself Louis’s vassal. He died of plague during a Crusade. The most popular of the Capetian kings, his reputation for justness and piety led the French to venerate him as a saint even before his canonization in 1297.

Louis XI (b. July 3, 1423, Bourges, France—d. Aug. 30, 1483, Plessis- les-Tours) King of France (1461-83). He plotted against his father, Charles VII, and was exiled to Dauphine (1445), which he ruled as a sov¬ ereign state until Charles approached its borders with an army (1456). Louis then fled to the Netherlands, returning to France to become king on his father’s death in 1461. He fought rebellious French princes (1465) and made concessions to Charles the Bold (1468). Seeking to strengthen and unify France, he destroyed the power of the Burgundians in 1477. He regained control of Boulonnais, Picardy, and Burgundy, took possession of Franche-Comte and Artois (1482), annexed Anjou (1471), and inher¬ ited Maine and Provence (1481).

Louis XII (b. June 27, 1462, Blois, France—d. Jan. 1, 1515, Paris) King of France (1498-1515). He became king on the death of his cousin Charles VIII. He annulled his marriage to marry Charles’s widow, Anne of Britt¬ any, and to reinforce the union of her duchy with France. He continued France’s part in the Italian Wars, often with disastrous results. He con¬ quered Milan in 1499, then lost it, but was later recognized as duke of Milan by Emperor Maximilian 1. He concluded a treaty with Ferdinand V that partitioned Naples (1500), but the two kings went to war and Louis lost all of Naples (1504). In 1508 he consolidated the League of Cambrai, but when the league fell apart in 1510 its members joined England in a Holy League against France, invading it several times. Despite his fail¬ ures, Louis was highly popular with the French, who called him the “Father of the People.”

Louis XIII (b. Sept. 27, 1601, Fontainebleau, France—d. May 14, 1643, Saint-Germain-en-Laye) King of France (1610—43). He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de Medicis. His mother was regent until 1614 but continued to govern until 1617; she arranged Louis’s marriage to the Spanish Anne of Austria in 1615. Resentful of his mother’s power, Louis exiled her, but Cardinal de Richelieu, her principal adviser, reconciled them in 1620. In 1624 Louis made Richelieu his principal minister, and the two cooperated closely to make France a leading European power, consoli¬ dating royal authority in France and fighting to break the dominant rule of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs in the Thirty Years' War. Pro- Spanish Catholic zealots led by Marie de Medicis appealed to Louis to reject Richelieu’s policy of supporting the Protestant states, but Louis stood by his minister and his mother withdrew into exile. France declared war on Spain in 1635 and had won substantial victories by the time Rich¬ elieu died in 1642. Louis was succeeded by his son Louis XIV.

Louis XIII style Style of the visual arts produced in France during the reign of Louis XIII, including the regency of his mother, Marie de Medicis, who introduced much of the art of her native Italy. The Mannerism of Italy and Flanders was so influential that a true French style did not develop until the mid-17th century, when the influence of Caravaggio was assimi¬ lated by Georges de La Tour and the Le Nain brothers, and the influence of

the Carracci brothers was extended by Simon Vouet, who trained the aca¬ demic painters of the next generation. The sculpture of the period was undistinguished. The most prolific area of the arts was architecture. Here, too, the Italian influence is seen, as in the Palais de Justice at Rennes and the Luxembourg Palace in Paris, both designed by Salomon de Brosse, and the chapel of the Sorbonne in Paris, designed by Jacques Lemercier. The furniture of the period is typically massive and solidly built and com¬ monly decorated with cherubs, ornate scrollwork, fruit-and-flower swags, and grotesque masks.

Louis XIV known as the Sun King (b. Sept. 5, 1638, Saint-Germain- en-Laye, France—d. Sept. 1, 1715, Versailles) King of France (1643— 1715), ruler during one of France’s most brilliant periods and the symbol of absolute monarchy of the Neoclassical age. He succeeded his father, Louis XIII, at age four, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria. In 1648 the nobles and the Paris Parlement, who hated the prime minis¬ ter, Cardinal Mazarin, rose against the crown and started the Fronde. In 1653, victorious over the rebels, Mazarin gained absolute power, though the king was of age. In 1660 Louis married Marie-Therese of Austria (1638-83), daughter of Philip IV of Spain. When Mazarin died in 1661, Louis astonished his ministers by informing them that he intended to assume responsibility for ruling the kingdom. A believer in dictatorship by divine right, he viewed himself as God’s representative on earth. He was assisted by his able ministers, Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the marquis de Louvois. Louis weakened the nobles’ power by making them depen¬ dent on the crown. A patron of the arts, he protected writers and devoted himself to building splendid palaces, including the extravagant Versailles, where he kept most of the nobility under his watchful eye. In 1667 he invaded the Spanish Netherlands in the War of Devolution (1667-68) and again in 1672 in the Third Dutch War. The Sun King was at his zenith; he had extended France’s northern and eastern borders and was adored at his court. In 1680 a scandal involving his mistress, the marchioness de Montespan (1641-1707), made him fearful for his reputation, and he openly renounced pleasure. The queen died in 1683, and he secretly mar¬ ried the pious marchioness de Maintenon. After trying to convert French Protestants by force, he revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Fear of his expansionism led to alliances against France during the War of the Grand Alliance (1688-97) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14). Louis died at age 77 at the end of the longest reign in European history.

Louis XIV style Style of the visual arts produced in France during the reign of Louis XIV. In 1648 Charles Le Brun founded the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, which rigidly dictated styles for the rest of the reign. The most influential painter was Nicolas Poussin, who forged the way for French Classicism (see Classicism and Neoclassicism). Sculpture reached a new zenith with the works of Francois Girardon and Pierre Puget. A national style in the decorative arts evolved through the Gobelin fac¬ tory (see Gobelin family). Furniture was veneered, inlaid, heavily gilded, and commonly decorated with shells, satyrs, garlands, mythological heroes, and dolphins; the style is particularly associated with Andre- Charles Boulle. In architecture, Jean-Baptiste Colbert rigidly controlled the renovation of the Palace of Versailles, with landscaping by Andre Le Notre.

Louis XV (b. Feb. 15, 1710, Versailles, France—d. May 10, 1774, Ver¬ sailles) King of France (1715-74). An orphan from age three, Louis suc¬ ceeded to the throne on the death of his great-grandfather Louis XIV (1715), under the regency of Philippe II, duke d’Orleans (1674-1723). His mar¬ riage to Princess Marie Leszczynska of Poland (1703-68) in 1725 led to France’s involvement in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-38). He chose Andre-Hercule de Fleury as his chief minister in 1726, and his own influence became perceptible only after Fleury’s death in 1744. Louis’s mistresses, particularly the marchioness de Pompadour, held considerable political influence. Louis brought France into the War of the Austrian Suc¬ cession (1740^-8) and the Seven Years' War (1756-63), by which France lost to Britain almost all its colonial possessions. As the crown’s moral and political authority declined, the Parlements gained in power, prevent¬ ing fiscal reform. The king died hated by his subjects.

Louis XV style Rococo style of French decorative arts during the reign of Louis XV, when artists produced exquisite decor for the homes of roy¬ alty and nobility. Emphasis was laid on the ensemble, so that paintings and sculptures became part of the decorative arts. The full range of rich¬ ness in decorative techniques was represented—superb carving, ornamen¬ tation of all types of metal, inlay work in exotic woods, metal, mother- of-pearl, and ivory, and exquisite lacquered chinoiserie that rivaled products from East Asia. Fantasy joined nature and Asian themes in pro-

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Louis XVI ► Louisiana I 1141

viding decorative motifs. Notable artists and designers include Jean- Honore Fragonard, Francois Boucher, and Jean-Baptiste Oudry.

Louis XVI (b. Aug. 23, 1754, Versailles, France—d. Jan. 21, 1793, Paris) Last king of France (1774-92) in the Bourbon line preceding the French Revolution. In 1770 he married Marie-Antoinette, and in 1774 he suc¬ ceeded to the throne on the death of his grandfather, Louis XV. Immature and lacking in strength of character, he was unable to give the necessary support to his ministers, including Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker, in their efforts to stabilize France’s tottering finances. Restoration of the Parlements in 1774 shifted power to the aristocracy. Aristocratic opposition to the economic reforms of Charles-Alexandre de Calonne forced the king to summon the Estates-General in 1788, setting the Revolution in motion. Dominated by the reactionary court faction, he defended the privileges of the clergy and nobility. He dismissed Necker in 1789 and refused to sanction the achievements of the National Assem¬ bly. His resistance to popular demands was one cause for the royal fami¬ ly’s forcible transfer from Versailles to the Tuileries palace in Paris. He lost credibility further when he attempted to escape the capital in 1791 and was caught at Varennes and returned to Paris. Thereafter he was dominated by the queen, who encouraged him to a policy of subterfuge instead of implementing the Constitution of 1791, which he had sworn to maintain. In 1792 the Tuileries was captured by the people and mili¬ tia, and the First French Republic was proclaimed. When proof of his counterrevolutionary intrigues with foreigners was found, he was tried for treason. Condemned to death, he went to the guillotine in 1793. His dig¬ nity during his trial and execution only somewhat redeemed his reputa¬ tion.

Louis XVI style Style of the visual arts produced in France from c. 1760 to the French Revolution. The predominant style in painting, archi¬ tecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts was Neoclassicism—a reaction against the excesses of the Rococo style and a response to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s call for “natural” virtue, as well as a response to the excava¬ tions at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The most prominent painter was Jacques- Louis David, whose severe compositions recalled the style of Nicolas Poussin. The foremost sculptor of the day was Jean-Antoine Houdon. The style in furniture was classical, yet workmanship was more complex than in any earlier period. Jean-Henri Riesener and other German craftsmen were among the most prominent cabinetmakers. See also Classicism and Neo- classicism.

Louis XVII orig. Louis-Charles (b. March 27, 1785, Versailles, France—d. June 8, 1795, Paris) Titular king of France from 1793. The second son of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, he became heir to the throne on his brother’s death, shortly after the outbreak of the French Revolution. In 1792 he was imprisoned with the rest of the royal family. When his father was beheaded in 1793, the French emigre nobility proclaimed Louis- Charles king. He died in prison at age 10, but the secrecy surrounding his last months gave rise to rumours that he was not dead, and over the next few decades more than 30 persons claimed to be Louis XVII. DNA tests in 2000 established that the child who died in 1795 was in fact the son of Louis XIV and Marie-Antoinette.

Louis XVIII orig. Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, count de Provence

(b. Nov. 17, 1755, Versailles, France—d. Sept. 16, 1824, Paris) King of France by title from 1795 and in fact from 1814 to 1824. He fled the country in 1791, during the French Revolution, and issued counterrevo¬ lutionary manifestos and organized emigre-nobility associations. He became regent for his nephew Louis XVII after the 1793 execution of Louis XVI, and at the dauphin’s death in 1795 he proclaimed himself king. When the allied armies entered Paris in 1814, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand negoti¬ ated the Bourbon Restoration and Louis was received with jubilation. He promised a constitutional monarchy, and the Charter of 1814 was adopted; after the interruption of the Hundred Days, when Napoleon returned from Elba, he resumed his constitutional monarchy. The legis¬ lature included a strong right-wing majority, and though Louis opposed the extremism of the ultras, they exercised increasing control and thwarted his attempts to heal the wounds left by the Revolution. He was succeeded at his death by his brother, Charles X.

Louis, Joe in full Joseph Louis Barrow (b. May 13, 1914, Lafay¬ ette, Ala., U.S.—d. April 12, 1981, Las Vegas, Nev.) U.S. boxer. Louis was bom into a sharecropper’s family and only began boxing after the family moved to Detroit. He won the U.S. Amateur Athletic Union title in 1934 and turned professional that year. During his career he defeated

six previous or subsequent heavyweight champions: Primo Camera, Max Baer, Jack Sharkey, James J. Braddock, Max Schmeling, and Jersey Joe Walcott. Nicknamed “the Brown Bomber,” Louis gained the world heavy¬ weight championship by defeating Braddock in 1937 and held the title until 1949. Two of Louis’s most famous bouts, those with the German boxer Max Schmeling, were invested with nationalist and racial implica¬ tions, as Schmeling was seen, unfairly, as the embodiment of Aryanism and the Nazi party. Louis lost to Schmeling in 1936 but defeated him in one round in 1938, causing much jubilation among Americans, and espe¬ cially African Americans. He successfully defended his title 25 times (21 by knockout) before retiring in 1949. His service in the U.S. Army dur¬ ing World War II no doubt prevented him from defending his title many more times. He made unsuccessful comeback attempts against Ezzard Charles in 1950 and Rocky Marciano in 1951.

Louis, Morris orig. Morris Louis Bernstein (b. Nov. 24, 1912, Baltimore, Md., U.S.—d. Sept. 7, 1962, Washington, D.C.) U.S. painter. He studied painting at the Maryland Institute and worked as an easel painter for the WPA Federal Art Project. Inspired by Helen Frankenthaler’s colour stain technique, in 1954 he began a series of paintings titled Veils, featuring stained vertical waves of colour; these works had an impersonal, nonpainterly quality. During this period he became associated with the New York school of Abstract Expressionism. His later work featured diago¬ nal parallel streams of colour that flowed across the bottom comers of the picture plane. In his last series, Stripes, bunched, straight vertical bands of colour are surrounded by empty canvas.

Louis, St. See Louis IX

Louis-Napoleon See Napoleon III

Louis-Philippe known as the Citizen King (b. Oct. 6, 1773, Paris, France—d. Aug. 26, 1850, Claremont, Surrey, Eng.) King of the French (1830-48). Eldest son of the duke d’ Orleans, he supported the new gov¬ ernment at the outbreak of the French Revolution and joined the Revo¬ lutionary army in 1792 but deserted during the war with Austria (1793) and lived in exile in Switzerland, the U.S., and England. He returned to France on the restoration of Louis XVIII and joined the liberal opposition. Following the July Revolution (1830) and Charles X’s abdication, he was proclaimed the “Citizen King” by Adolphe Thiers and elected by the leg¬ islature. During the subsequent July Monarchy, he consolidated his power by steering a middle course between the right-wing monarchists and the socialists and other republicans but resorted to repressive measures because of numerous rebellions and attempts on his life. He strengthened France’s position in Europe and cooperated with the British in forcing the Dutch to recognize Belgian independence. Mounting middle-class oppo¬ sition to his arbritrary rule and his inability to win allegiance from the new industrial classes caused his abdication during the February Revolu¬ tion of 1848.

Louis the Bavarian See Louis IV Louis the Fat See Louis VI Louis the Pious See Louis I Louis the Younger See Louis VII

Louisiade \lu-,e-ze-'ad\ Archipelago Island group, Papua New Guinea, southeast of New Guinea. Stretching for more than 100 mi (160 km), it occupies 10,000 sq mi (26,000 sq km) of the South Pacific Ocean. It has nearly 100 islands; the largest are Misima, Tagula, and Rossel. It was visited by the Spanish in 1606 and was named after Louis XV of France in 1768. Occupied by Japanese forces in 1942, the islands are near the site of the Battle of the Coral Sea.

Louisiana State (pop., 2000:4,468,976), southern U.S. Lying on the Gulf of Mexico, it is bordered by Arkansas, Mississippi, and Texas. It covers 47,716 sq mi (123,584 sq km); its capital is Baton Rouge. It can be divided physically into the Mississippi River flood plain and delta and the low hills of the Gulf of Mexico coastal plain. It is the only U.S. state to be governed under the Napoleonic Code. Indian occupancy in the area probably spanned 16,000 years; at the time of European settlement the region was inhabited by the Caddo and Choctaw. French explorer La Salle descended the Mis¬ sissippi River in 1682 and claimed the entire river basin for France. The city of New Orleans was founded in 1718, and Louisiana became a French crown colony in 1731. Colonization increased in the 1760s with the arrival of French-speaking Acadians (Cajuns) from Nova Scotia. Spain controlled the territory from 1762 to 1800; then it passed back to the French. The lands

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1142 I Louisiana Purchase ► lovage

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that constitute modern Louisiana were acquired by the U.S. as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and became the Territory of Orleans in 1804. Louisiana became the 18th U.S. state in 1812. It seceded from the Union in 1861 at the start of the American Civil War and was readmitted in 1868. The plantation economy continued with the farmer class denied land owner¬ ship, which contributed to the rise of the populist Huey Long in the 1920s. After World War II Louisiana experienced more rapid development with the rise of offshore oil and gas drilling. Soybeans are a major agricultural crop; tree farming and shrimp fishing are also important. Petroleum and natural gas are the chief mineral resources. In 2005 hurricanes devastated New Orleans and surrounding communities.

Louisiana Purchase Territory purchased by the U.S. from France in 1803 for $15 million. It extended from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and from the Gulf of Mexico to British America (Canada). In 1762 France had ceded Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain, but Spain returned it to French control in 1800. Alarmed by this poten¬ tial increase in French power. Pres. Thomas Jefferson threatened to form an alliance with Britain. Napoleon then sold the U.S. the entire Louisi¬ ana Territory, although its boundaries remained unclear; its northwestern and southwestern limits were not established until 1818-19. The purchase doubled the area of the U.S.

Louisville Vlu-i-,vil\ City (pop., 2000: 256,231), north-central Kentucky, U.S., located on the Ohio River. Settled in 1778 on Corn Island, it expanded the next year when the settlers moved ashore. Named for Louis XVI of France, it became an important river trading centre and was char¬ tered as a city in 1828. During the American Civil War it served as a Union military headquarters and supply depot. The largest city in Kentucky, it is a leading producer of bonded bourbon whiskey and cigarettes. It is home to the University of Louisville (founded 1798) and Churchill Downs, the site of the Kentucky Derby.

Loup \Tiip\ River River, east-central Nebraska, U.S. It flows east to join the Platte River. It is 300 mi (485 km) long and is harnessed to produce hydroelectric power. Its name is derived from the French name (meaning “wolf’) for the Skidi Indians.

Lourdes Pilgrimage site in southwestern France, situated southwest of Toulouse at the foot of the Pyrenees. The town and its fortress formed a strategic stronghold in medieval times, but its modern significance dates from 1858, when a 14-year-old girl had repeated visions of the Virgin Mary (see Bernadette of Lourdes). The visions were declared authentic by Pope Pius IX in 1862. The underground spring in the grotto where Berna¬ dette had her visions was declared to have miraculous qualities, and Lour¬ des has since become one of the foremost destinations for Roman Catholic pilgrims. Nearly 3 million visit annually, many of them sick or disabled people hoping to be healed. A basilica was built above the grotto in 1876, and a vast underground church was added in 1958.

Lourenco Marques See Maputo

louse Any of some 3,300 species of small, wingless, parasitic insects of the order Phthiraptera. The order consists mainly of biting, or chewing, lice (parasites of birds and mam¬ mals) and sucking lice (see sucking louse). The louse’s body is flattened.

The eggs, or nits, are cemented to the hair or plumage of the host, and most species spend their entire lives on the bodies of host animals. Heavy infes¬ tations cause much irritation and may lead to secondary infections. In moving from host to host, lice may spread many diseases, including tapeworm infestation in dogs and murine typhus in rats.

louse, human Any of three types of sucking louse that infest humans.

The body louse (mainly Pediculus humanus humanus, also called human louse or cootie) and head louse (P. h. capitis) are spread by person-to-person contact and through shared clothing, bedding, combs, and other personal items.

Body lice carry the organisms that cause relapsing fever, trench fever, and typhus. Head lice may cause impetigo. Both are readily spread under con¬ ditions of overcrowding, especially among children. The crab louse, or pubic louse ( Phthirus pubis ) infests primarily the pubic region and occa¬ sionally other hairy regions. Its first pair of legs is smaller than the other two pairs, making it look like a crab. Crab lice are transmitted primarily through sexual intercourse. Lice infestations can be quickly cured with shampoos, soaps, and lotions containing benzene hexachloride, along with the thorough washing of bedding and clothing.

lousewort Any of about 500 species of herbaceous plants that make up the genus Pedicularis in the snap¬ dragon family. The lousewort is found throughout the Northern Hemisphere but especially on the mountains of central and eastern Asia. The bilaterally symmetrical flowers sometimes have very unusual shapes. The flowers of the little elephant (P. groenlandica), for example, resemble the head, trunk, and ears of an elephant. Louseworts are semiparasitic on the roots of other plants.

Louvain \lu-'va n \, Catholic Uni¬ versity of Either of two Belgian universities established in 1970, both descended from a renowned univer¬ sity founded in 1425 in Louvain. The original university included on its faculty in the early 1500s Desiderius Erasmus, Justus Lipsius, and Gerar¬ dus Mercator. The modern university was reorganized into separate units following student riots and government upheavals in 1969. At the Katho- lieke Universiteit te Leuven, the language of instruction is Dutch. At the Universite Catholique de Louvain, located in Louvain-la-Neuve, instruc¬ tion is in French.

louver \'lu-v3r\ Arrangement of parallel, horizontal blades or slats of glass, wood, or other material designed to regulate airflow or light pen¬ etration. Louvers are often used in windows or doors to allow air or light in while keeping the elements out. They may be either movable or fixed. The term also refers to metal blades covering the intake and exhaust out¬ lets of ventilation and air-conditioning units.

Louvois \luv-'wa\, Francois-Michel Le Tellier \b-tal-'ya\, mar¬ quis de (baptized Jan. 18, 1639, Paris, France—d. July 16, 1691, Ver¬ sailles) French secretary of state for war under Louis XIV and his most influential minister (1677-91). The son of Michel Le Tellier (1603-85), one of the most powerful officials in France, he was groomed by his father to replace him as war secretary. A brilliant administrator, Louvois brought his father’s military reforms to fruition, making the French army one of the most formidable in Europe. He was complicit in the military policy that led up to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), and was also responsible for the destruction of the Palatinate (1688), which led to the War of the Grand Alliance.

Louvre VliivrA Museum National museum and art gallery of France, in Paris. It was built as a royal residence, begun under Francis I in 1546 on the site of a 12th-century fortress. It ceased to be used as a palace when the court moved to Versailles in 1682, and plans were made in the 18th century to turn it into a public museum. In 1793 the revolutionary government opened the Grand Gallery; Napoleon built the northern wing; and two major western wings were completed and opened by Napoleon III. The completed Louvre included a vast complex of buildings forming two main quadrilaterals and enclosing two large courtyards. A controver¬ sial steel-and-glass pyramid entrance designed by I.M. Pei opened in 1989. The painting collection is one of the richest in the world, representing all periods of European art up to Impressionism; its collection of French 15th— 19th-century paintings is unsurpassed.

lovage \'b-vij\ Herb ( Levisticum officinale ) of the parsley family, native to southern Europe. It is cultivated for its stalks and foliage, which are used for tea, as a vegetable, and to flavour foods. Its rhizomes are used as a carminative, and the seeds are used for flavouring desserts. Oil obtained from the flowers is used in perfumery.

Male human louse (Pediculus humanus; magnified about 15 Vi x)

WILLIAM E. FERGUSON

Lousewort (Pedicularis lanceolata)

KITTY KOHOUT FROM ROOT RESOURCES-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Love Canal ► Lower Canada I 1143

Love Canal Neighbourhood in Niagara Falls, N.Y., the site of the worst environmental disaster involving chemical wastes in U.S. history. Origi¬ nally the site of an abandoned canal, it became a dumping ground for nearly 22,000 tons of chemical waste in the 1940s and ’50s. The canal was later filled in, and housing was built on it. The leakage of toxic chemicals into these homes was detected in 1978, and residents were dis¬ covered to have a high incidence of chromosome damage. After their evacuation, 1,300 former residents obtained a $20 million settlement from the dumping company and the city. In the early 1990s New York state ended its cleanup and declared parts of the area safe for residence.

lovebird Any of nine species of small parrots (genus Agapornis, sub¬ family Psittacinae) of Africa and Madagascar. Popular as pets for their pretty colours and the seemingly affectionate closeness of pairs, love¬ birds are 4-6 in. (10-16 cm) long, chunky, and short-tailed. Most have a red bill and a prominent eye ring.

The two sexes look alike. Large flocks forage in woods and scru¬ blands for seeds and may damage crops. Hardy and long-lived, they are combative toward other birds and have a loud, squawky voice. Though not easy to tame, they can be taught to perform tricks and mimic human speech to a limited extent.

Lovejoy, Elijah P(arish) (b.

Nov. 9, 1802, Albion, Maine,

U.S.—d. Nov. 7, 1837, Alton, Ill.)

U.S. newspaper editor and abolition¬ ist. He moved to St. Louis in 1827. In 1833 he became editor of the St. Louis Observer, a Presbyterian weekly in which he wrote articles strongly condemning slavery. Under the threat of mob violence (1836), he moved his paper from the slave state of Missouri across the river to Alton, in the free state of Illinois. There mobs repeatedly destroyed his presses, and he was shot and killed while defending his building against an attack. News of his death strengthened abolitionist sentiment.

Lovelace, Ada King, countess of orig. Augusta Ada Byron, Lady Byron (b. Dec. 10, 1815, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 29, 1852, Lon¬ don) English mathematician. Her father was the poet Lord Byron. In 1835 she married William King, 8th Baron King; when he was created an earl in 1838, she became countess of Lovelace. Having studied with the famous mathematician-logician Augustus De Morgan, she was introduced to Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine (calculator) and studied plans for his Analytical Engine (computer) as early as 1833. In 1843 she translated and annotated an article about the Analytical Engine by Italian mathema¬ tician Luigi Federico Menabrea. In correspondence with Babbage, she also described how the Analytical Engine could be “programmed” to cal¬ culate certain numbers; this work has been called the first computer pro¬ gram, and in consequence she has been called the first computer programmer. Ada, a computer programming language, is named for her.

Lovell Vta-volV Sir (Alfred Charles) Bernard (b. Aug. 31, 1913, Oldland Common, Gloucestershire, Eng.) British radio astronomer. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Bristol, worked for the Air Ministry during World War II, and lectured at the University of Manches¬ ter after the war. He built the first giant radio telescope (1957) at Jodrell Bank, near Manchester; with a bowl diameter of 250 ft (76 m), the instru¬ ment is used for astronomical research and spacecraft tracking and com¬ munication.

low blood pressure See hypotension

Low Countries Coastal region, northwestern Europe, consisting of Bel¬ gium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Known as the Low Countries because much of the land along the North Sea is below or at sea level, they are often called the Benelux countries, from the initial letters of their names.

low relief See bas-relief

Lowell City (pop., 2000: 105,167), northeastern Massachusetts, U.S. Settled in 1653 as East Chelmsford, it became a major centre of cotton- textile manufacturing in the 19th century. It was renamed for industrial¬

ist Francis Lowell and was incorporated as a town in 1826. In the 20th century it began losing textile manufacturing to southern states, and it diversified into other industries. The Lowell National Historical Park (established 1978) commemorates the first textile mills in the U.S. It is the birthplace of the artist James McNeill Whistler and the seat of the Uni¬ versity of Massachusetts Lowell.

Lowell, Amy (b. Feb. 9, 1874, Brookline, Mass., U.S.—d. May 12, 1925, Brookline) U.S. critic and poet. Born into the prominent Lowell family of Boston, she devoted herself to poetry at age 28 but published nothing until 1910. Her first volume, A Dome of Many-Coloured Glass (1912), was succeeded by Sword Blades and Poppy Seed (1914), which included her first poems in free verse and what she called “polyphonic prose.” She became a leader of Imagism and was noted for her vivid and powerful personality and her scorn of conventional behaviour. Her other works include Six French Poets (1915), Tendencies in Modern American Poetry (1917), and John Keats, 2 vol. (1925).

Lowell, Francis Cabot (b. April 7, 1775, Newburyport, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 10, 1817, Boston) U.S. businessman. Born into a promi¬ nent Massachusetts family, Lowell closely studied the British textile industry while visiting Britain. With Paul Moody he devised an efficient power loom and spinning apparatus. His Boston Manufacturing Co. in Waltham (1812-14) was apparently the world’s first mill in which were performed all operations converting raw cotton into finished cloth. His example greatly stimulated the growth of New England industry. Lowell, Mass., is named for him.

Lowell, James Russell (b. Feb. 22, 1819, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 12, 1891, Cambridge)

U.S. poet, critic, editor, and diplo¬ mat. He received a law degree from Harvard but chose not to practice. In the 1840s he wrote extensively against slavery, including the Biglow Papers (1848), satirical verses in Yankee dialect. His other most important works are The Vision of Sir Launfal (1848), a long poem on the brotherhood of mankind; and A Fable for Critics (1848), a witty evaluation of contemporary authors.

After his wife’s death in 1853, he wrote mainly essays on literature, history, and politics. A highly influ¬ ential man of letters in his day, he taught at Harvard, edited The Atlan¬ tic Monthly and The North American Review, and served as minister to Spain and ambassador to Britain.

Lowell, Percival (b. March 13, 1855, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 12, 1916, Flagstaff, Ariz.) U.S. astronomer. He was born into a distin¬ guished Boston family. In the 1890s he built a private observatory in Flagstaff, Ariz., to study Mars. He championed the now-abandoned theory that intelligent inhabitants of a dying Mars had constructed a planetwide system of irrigation. He thought that the so-called canals of Mars (see Mars, canals of) were bands of cultivated vegetation dependent on this irrigation. Lowell’s theory, long vigorously opposed, was finally put to rest by images received from the U.S. Mariner spacecraft. His prediction of a planet beyond Neptune was vindicated when Pluto was discovered in 1930.

Lowell, Robert orig. Robert Traill Spence Lowell, Jr. (b. March 1, 1917, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Sept. 12, 1977, New York, N.Y.) U.S. poet. Lowell was a descendant of a distinguished family that included James Russell Lowell and Amy Lowell. Though he turned away from his Puritan heritage, it forms the subject of much of his poetry. His first major work, Lord Weary’s Castle (1946, Pulitzer Prize), contains “The Quaker Graveyard in Nantucket.” Life Studies (1959) contains an autobiographi¬ cal essay and 15 complex, confessional poems largely based on his fam¬ ily history and personal life, which included time in mental institutions. His activities in liberal causes in the 1960s influenced his next three vol¬ umes, including For the Union Dead (1964). His later collections include The Dolphin (1973, Pulitzer Prize).

Lower Canada See Canada East

Lovebirds (Agapornis personata).

TONI ANGERMAYER

James Russell Lowell.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1144 I Lowry ► Luba-Lunda states

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Lowry \'lau-re\, (Clarence) Malcolm (b. July 28, 1909, Birkhead, Cheshire, Eng.—d. June 27, 1957, Ripe, Sussex) British novelist, short- story writer, and poet. In his youth Lowry rebelled against his conven¬ tional upbringing and shipped to China as a cabin boy; he later lived in France, the U.S., Mexico, Canada, and Italy. His reputation rests on the novel Under the Volcano (1947), about the last desperate day of a dispir¬ ited alcoholic and former British consul in Mexico. Its juxtaposition of images of social decay and self-destructiveness was seen as a symbolic vision of Europe on the verge of World War II. Though critically praised, it received popular recognition only after Lowry’s death at age 47, prob¬ ably the result of alcoholism.

Loy, Myrna orig. Myrna Williams (b. Aug. 2, 1905, Radersburg, Mont., U.S.—d. Dec. 14, 1993, New York, N.Y.) U.S. film actress. She played bit parts in Hollywood movies before being cast as the exotic mis¬ tress in the 1925 production of Ben-Hur, which established her early film persona as a foreign vamp. She earned praise as the wittily sophisticated Nora Charles in The Thin Man (1934) and its sequels and in other movies such as The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House (1948), Cheaper by the Dozen (1950), and Lonely hearts (1958). Dubbed the “Queen of Hollywood” during her heyday, she evinced equality in a male-dominated world, and her combination of beauty and brains made male audiences regard her as the ideal mate. She worked for the American Red Cross in World War II and later for UNESCO.

loyalist American colonist loyal to Britain in the American Revolution. About one-third of American colonists were loyalists, including office¬ holders who served the British crown, large landholders, wealthy mer¬ chants, Anglican clergy and their parishioners, and Quakers. Loyalists were most numerous in the South, New York, and Pennsylvania, but they did not constitute a majority in any colony. At first they urged modera¬ tion in the struggle for colonial rights; when denounced by radical patri¬ ots, they became active partisans. Some joined the British army, including 23,000 from New York; when captured in battle, they were treated as trai¬ tors. All states passed laws against them, confiscating or heavily taxing their property. Beginning in 1776, about 100,000 loyalists fled into exile, many to Canada. Public sentiment against them diminished after 1789, and punitive state laws were repealed by 1814.

Loyola, Saint Ignatius of orig. Inigo de Onaz y Loyola (b.

1491, Loyola, Castile—d. July 31, 1556, Rome; canonized March 12, 1622, feast day July 31) Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). Born into the nobility, he began his career as a soldier. While convalesc¬ ing from wounds inflicted by a French cannonball in 1521, he experienced a religious conversion. After a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he pursued reli¬ gious studies in Spain and France. In Paris he gathered about him the companions (including St. Francis Xavier) who were to join him in found¬ ing the Jesuits. He was ordained a priest in 1537 and established the Soci¬ ety of Jesus in 1539. The new order received papal approval in 1540, and Loyola served as its general until his death, by which time it had branches in Italy, Spain, Germany, France, Portugal, India, and Brazil. Loyola described his mystical vision of prayer in The Spiritual Exercises. In his last years he laid the foundations of a system of Jesuit schools.

Lozi \'lo-ze\ or Barotse \bo-'rat-s9\ Complex of 25 Bantu-speaking peoples divided into six cultural groups centring on the area formerly known as Barotseland in western Zambia. Numbering more than 700,000, the Lozi move between two sets of villages in response to annual flood¬ ing. Their economy is based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and fish¬ ing. Their stratified society consists of aristocrats, commoners, and serfs.

LSD in full lysergic acid diethylamide Highly potent hallucino¬ genic drug. An organic compound, LSD can be derived from the alkaloids ergotamine and ergonovine, found in the ergot fungus, but most LSD is produced synthetically. It can block the action of the neurotransmitter serotonin and produces marked deviations from normal perceptions and behaviour lasting 8-10 hours or longer. Mood shifts, time and space dis¬ tortions, and impulsive behaviour may progress to paranoia and aggres¬ sion. Flashbacks to LSD-induced hallucinations can occur years later. LSD is not an approved drug, and no clinically valuable uses have been found for it.

Lu Vassal state of ancient China that originated during the Western Zhou and came to prominence in the Warring States period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. It is known as the birthplace of Confucius. The Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn Annals”), one of the Confucian Classics, records the major events at the court of Lu between 722 and 481 bc.

Lu Hsiang-shan See Lu Xiangshan Lu Hsun See Lu Xun

Lu Jiuyuan See Lu Xiangshan Lu-ta See Dalian

Lu Xiangshan or Lu Hsiang-shan Vlii-'shyaq-'shaM or Lu Jiuyuan Vlli-'jyo-'ywanX (b. 1139, Kiangsi, China—d. Jan. 10, 1193, China) Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher of the Southern Song dynasty. A government official and a teacher, he was the rival of the great Neo- Confucian rationalist Zhu Xi. Lu taught that the highest knowledge of the way (dao) comes from constant inner reflection and self-examination. In this process, one develops or recovers the fundamental goodness of one’s nature. Lu’s writings were published after his death, and his thought was revised three centuries later by Wang Yangming, who established the Xinxue school of Neo-Confucianism, often called the Lu-Wang school.

Lu Xun or Lu Hsun \'lu-'shLen\ orig. Zhou Shuren (b. Sept. 25, 1881, Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, China—d. Oct. 19, 1936, Shanghai) Chinese writer. He became associated with the nascent Chinese literary movement in 1918 (part of the larger May Fourth Movement), when he published his short story “Diary of a Madman,” a condemnation of tra¬ ditional Confucian culture and the first Western-style story written wholly in Chinese. Though best known for his fiction, he was also a master of the prose essay, a vehicle he used especially late in life. He never joined the Communist Party himself, but he recruited many of his countrymen to communism and came to be considered a revolutionary hero.

Lualaba V.lu-a-'la-biA River River, central Africa. It is the headstream of the Congo River, and its 1,100-mi (1,800-km) course lies entirely within the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is harnessed in places for hydro¬ electric power.

Luan \lu-'wan\ River River, Hebei province, northeastern China. It rises in eastern Inner Mongolia and flows north, then curves to the southeast. It passes through the Great Wall and divides into a number of smaller rivers, discharging into the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli) after a course of 545 mi (877 km). The river is navigable below Chengde.

Luanda \lu-'an-d3\ or Loanda \lo-'an-d3\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 2,555,000), capital of Angola. Situated on the Atlantic coast, it is Ango¬ la’s largest city and its second busiest seaport. Founded in 1576 by Paulo Dias de Novais, it became the administrative centre for the colony of

Angola in 1627. It was a major out¬ let for slave traffic to Brazil until the 19th century. It is a commercial and industrial area, with oil-refining capacity. It is the seat of the Univer¬ sity of Luanda; the old fortress of Sao Miguel lies beyond the port. It was damaged during the persistent Angolan civil war that ended in

Luang Pradist Manudharm

See Pridi Phanomyong

Luba or Baluba Cluster of some 5.6 million Bantu-speaking peoples who share a common political his¬ tory surrounding the Luba-Lunda states. They are savanna and forest dwellers who hunt and gather, engage in agriculture, and keep live¬ stock; they also fish intensively in the Congo and its tributaries. They have associations for hunting, magic, and medicine and a well-developed oral tradition that includes epic cycles. Two groups are noted as wood-carvers.

Luba-Lunda states Vlii-bo- 'liin-doV Complex of states that flour¬ ished in Central Africa in the 16th— 19th centuries. In the late 15th century a small group of ivory hunt-

Female Luba ancestral statue of carved wood; in the Musee de I'Homme, Paris.

COURTESY OF THE MUSEE DE L'HOMME, PARIS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Lubbock ► Luce I 1145

ers founded a state around which a number of satellites proliferated, spreading by the 17th century into the southern Congo Basin and what are now western Angola, and Zambia. The northeastern portion was inhab¬ ited by the Luba; the southwestern portion by the Lunda. These groups traded slaves and ivory to the Portuguese for cloth and other goods. In the 18th century migrants founded Kazembe farther southeast; it flour¬ ished until late in the 19th century, when it was colonized by the British.

Lubbock Vb-bakA City (pop., 2000: 199,564), northwestern Texas, U.S. Located south of Amarillo, it was named for Tom S. Lubbock, a signer of the Texas declaration of independence. Formed in 1890 from Old Lub¬ bock and Monterey, it developed as a ranching centre and was incorpo¬ rated in 1909. A tornado in 1970 caused widespread damage. It is one of the nation’s leading cotton markets and the centre of a diversified agri¬ cultural and industrial region. It is the seat of Texas Tech University

(1923).

Lubeck Vlui-.bekX City (population 2002 est.: 213,486), northern Ger¬ many. Founded on the site of a Slavic settlement in 1143, it developed as a trading post. It became a free city in 1226 and the seat of the Hanseatic League in 1358. It declined after the 16th century, and its trade was ruined during the Napoleonic Wars. It revived after the Elbe-Liibeck canal was built in 1900. Its status as a self-governing entity ended in 1937, when the Nazis made it part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It is one of Germany’s largest Baltic ports. Historic sites include a 12th- century cathedral and several Gothic churches.

Lubitsch Vlu-bich\, Ernst (b. Jan. 28, 1892, Berlin, Ger.—d. Nov. 30, 1947, Hollywood, Calif., U.S.) German-U.S. film director. He acted with Max Reinhardt’s German stage company (1911-14) and in short film com¬ edies, then turned to directing costume dramas that were the first German films shown abroad, including Passion (1919), Deception (1920), and The Loves of Pharaoh (1921), as well as comedies such as The Doll (1919) and The Oyster Princess (1919). He moved to Hollywood in 1923 and developed a style of sophisticated wit and unerring narrative timing —the famous “Lubitsch touch”—in successful comedies such as The Marriage Circle (1924), The Love Parade (1929), Trouble in Paradise (1932), Ninotchka (1939), The Shop Around the Corner (1940), To Be or Not to Be (1942), and Heaven Can Wait (1943).

Lublin \'lu-blin\ City (pop., 2000 est.: 355,803), eastern Poland, situated on the Bystrzyca River. Founded as a stronghold in the late 9th century, the settlement received town rights in 1317. In 1795 it passed to Austria and in 1815 to Russia. In 1918 the first independent temporary Polish government was proclaimed in Lublin. In World War II the Nazi concen¬ tration camp Majdanek was established in one of its suburbs. After the war Lublin served briefly as the seat of the national government. It is now an industrial and cultural centre for southeastern Poland.

lubrication Introduction of any of various substances between sliding surfaces to reduce wear and friction. Lubricants may secondarily control corrosion, regulate temperature, electrically insulate, remove contami¬ nants, or damp shock. Prehistoric peoples used mud and reeds to lubri¬ cate sledges, timbers, or rocks. Animal fat lubricated the axles of the first wagons and continued in wide use until crude oil became the chief source of lubricants. Crude oil has been the basis of products designed for the specific lubricating needs of automobiles, aircraft, locomotives, turbojets, and all other power machinery. There are three basic varieties of lubri¬ cation: fluid-film (in which a fluid film completely separates sliding sur¬ faces), boundary (in which the friction between surfaces is determined by the properties of the surfaces and properties of the lubricant other than viscosity), and solid (used when liquid lubricants lack adequate resistance to load or temperature extremes). The principal lubricants are liquid, oily materials (petroleum-based or synthetic, and including greases); solids (such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide, soft metals, waxes, and plas¬ tics); and gases.

Lubumbashi V.lii-biim-'ba-sh e\ formerly (until 1966) Elisabethville City (pop., 1994 est.: 851,381), Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was established by Belgian colonists in 1910 near the border with Zambia and grew to become the centre of one of the world’s largest copper mining and smelting operations. It was the centre of Katanga province’s seces¬ sion movement in the early 1960s.

Luca da Cortona See Luca Signorelli

Lucas, George (b. May 14, 1944, Modesto, Calif., U.S.) Film direc¬ tor and producer. He studied filmmaking at the University of Southern

California. His first feature film, THX 1138 (1971), was followed by the surprise success American Graffiti (1973). He wrote and directed the immensely popular science-fiction movie Star Wars (1977), which made innovative use of computerized special effects. He formed the production company Lucasfilms (1978) and its special-effects division Industrial Light and Magic and produced the Star Wars sequels —The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and The Return of the Jedi (1993)—as well as Steven Spiel¬ berg’s Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and its sequels. He returned to directing with the first Star Wars prequel, The Phantom Menace (1999), which was followed by the other prequels Attack of the Clones (2002) and Revenge of the Sith (2005).

Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (b. Sept. 15, 1937, Yakima, Wash., U.S.) U.S. economist. He studied at the University of Chicago and began teaching there in 1975. He questioned the influence of John Maynard Keynes in macroeconomics and the efficacy of government intervention in domestic affairs. He criticized the Phillips curve for failing to provide for the damp¬ ened expectations of companies and workers in an inflationary economy. His theory of rational expectations, which suggests that individuals may alter the expected results of national fiscal policy by making private eco¬ nomic decisions based on anticipated results, won him the 1995 Nobel Prize. See also econometrics; inflation.

Lucas (Huyghszoon) van Leyden VlIB-kas-van-'lI-daM (b. 1489/ 94, Leiden, Neth.—d. before Aug. 8, 1533, Leiden) Netherlandish painter and engraver. He was trained by his father, a painter, but his great talent was as an engraver. Even such youthful prints as Muhammad and the Monk Sergius (1508) show great technical skill. In 1510, under the influ¬ ence of Albrecht Durer, he produced two masterpieces of engraving, The Milkmaid and Ecce Homo, the latter much admired by Rembrandt. He is thought to have developed the technique of etching on copper (instead of iron) plates; the softness of copper permitted him to combine etching and line engraving in the same print. He was also among the first to employ aerial perspective in prints. Though his paintings seldom attain the power of his engravings, he was an outstanding Netherlandish painter of his period; The Last Judgment (1526-27) is his most celebrated painting.

Luce, Clare Boothe orig. Ann Clare Boothe (b. March 10, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 9,

1987, Washington, D.C.) U.S. poli¬ tician, dramatist, and socialite. She was bom into poverty to parents who never married. From 1930 to 1934 she worked as an editor at Vogue and Vanity Fair. In the latter she pub¬ lished short sketches satirizing New York society, some of which were collected as Stuffed Shirts (1931). In 1935 she married Henry R. Luce, the publisher of Time and later Life magazine. Three of her witty plays were adapted into films: The Women (1936), Kiss the Boys Goodbye (1938), and Margin for Error (1939).

From 1939 to 1940 she worked as a war correspondent for Life and recounted her experiences in Europe in the Spring (1940). As a member of the House of Representatives (1943-47), she became influential in Republican Party politics. She served as ambassador to Italy from 1953 to 1956, was a public supporter of Barry Goldwater in the 1960s, and served on the President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board under Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Reagan in the 1970s and ’80s. In 1983 she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. She is remembered for her fiesty demeanour and her acid wit, which she displayed in oft-quoted aphorisms such as, “No good deed goes unpunished.”

Luce, Henry R(obinson) (b. April 3, 1898, Dengzhou, Shandong province, China—d. Feb. 28, 1967, Phoenix, Ariz., U.S.) U.S. magazine publisher. Luce was born to U.S. missionary parents. He graduated from Yale University in 1920. While at Yale he had met Briton Hadden, with whom he launched Time in 1923. He added the business magazine For¬ tune in 1929 and Life magazine in 1936. Among other Luce magazines were House & Home, established in 1952, and Sports Illustrated, launched

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1146 I Lucerne ► Ludendorff

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in 1954. His publications, founded as means of educating what Luce con¬ sidered a poorly informed U.S. public, had many imitators, and Luce became one of the most powerful figures in the history of U.S. journal¬ ism. Both he and his wife, Clare Boothe Luce, had a major influence on the Republican Party and on national affairs.

Lucerne \lu-'s3rn\ German Luzern \liit-'sem\ City (pop., 2000: 59,496), central Switzerland. Located southwest of ZOrich, on Lake Luc¬ erne and its Reuss River outlet, it developed around an 8th-century mon¬ astery. It joined the Swiss Confederation in 1332. A stronghold of Catholicism during the Reformation, it later took part in the Sonderbund war. It is a tourist centre, with its medieval walls, towers, and covered bridges. Among its many monuments is the famous Lion of Lucerne, carved in rock, which commemorates the Swiss Guards slain while defending the Tuileries Palace in Paris in 1792.

Lucerne, Lake German Vierwaldstattersee Vfer-valt-.shtet- or-'za\ ("Lake of the Four Forest Cantons") Lake, central Swit¬ zerland. It is 24 mi (39 km) long and 0.5 to 2 mi (0.8 to 3 km) wide, with an area of 44 sq mi (114 sq km). It has a maximum depth of 702 ft (214 m). The “Cross of Lucerne” is formed by its four main basins, which are joined by narrow channels. Named after the city of Lucerne at its western end, it is in a region of resorts and tourist attractions.

Luchow See Hefei

Lucian Vlii-shonV or Lucianos Latin Lucianus (b. c. ad 120, Samo- sata, Commagene, Syria—d. after 180, Athens) Ancient Greek rhetorician, pamphleteer, and satirist. As a young man he acquired a Greek literary education while traveling through western Asia Minor. He became a pub¬ lic speaker before turning to writing essays. His works, outstanding for their mordant wit, are a sophisticated critique of the shams and follies of the literature, philosophy, and intellectual life of his day. In such works as Charon, Dialogues of the Dead, True History, and Nigrinus, he sati¬ rized nearly every aspect of human behaviour. His best work of literary criticism is How to Write History.

Luciano Hu-'cha-noV Lucky orig. Salvatore Lucania later Charles Luciano (b. Nov. 11, 1896, Lercara Friddi, Sicily, Italy—d. Jan. 26, 1962, Capodicino Airport, Naples) Italian-born U.S. gangster. He immigrated with his family to New York in 1906 and soon was involved in crime. In 1916 he conspired with Frank Costello, Meyer Lansky, and other young gangsters, earning the nickname “Lucky” by evading arrest and winning at craps. He joined the crime gang of Joe Masseria in 1920 and was soon directing Masseria’s bootlegging, narcotics, and prostitu¬ tion rackets. In 1931 he had both Masseria and rival boss Salvatore Maran- zano murdered; by 1934 he was “boss of all bosses” in a national crime syndicate. Jailed for extortion in 1936, he continued to direct criminal operations from his prison cell. In 1946 his sentence was commuted, and he was deported to Italy, where he directed drug traffic and the smuggling of aliens into the U.S.

Lucifer In classical mythology, the morning star (the planet Venus at dawn), personified as a male figure. Lucifer (Latin: “Light-Bearer”) car¬ ried a torch and served as herald of the dawn. In Christian times, Lucifer came to be regarded as the name of Satan before his fall; it was thus used by John Milton in Paradise Lost.

Lucite or Plexiglas or Perspex Trademark names of the organic compound poly methyl methacrylate, a synthetic polymer of methyl meth¬ acrylate. Colourless and highly transparent, the solid material has high dimensional stability and good resistance to weathering and shock. It is used in aircraft canopies and windows, in boat windshields, and as a gen¬ eral alternative to glass in many applications. An object made of Lucite has the unusual property of keeping a beam of light reflected within its surfaces and thus carrying the beam around bends and corners; Lucite is therefore used in devices for illuminating interior organs during surgery as well as for ornaments, medallions, and lenses.

Lucknow Vlak-.nauX City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 2,207,340), capital of Uttar Pradesh state, northern India, on the Gomati River southeast of Delhi. It was captured by the Mughal ruler Babur in 1528 and under his grand¬ son Akbar became part of Oudh province. In 1775 it became the capital of Oudh. It is now an important rail centre with paper factories and other industrial development. Notable sites include the Great Imambara (tomb) of one of the nabobs of Oudh, the Residency where the British were besieged during the Indian Mutiny of 1857, and the University of Luc¬ know.

Lucretius \lu-'kre-sh3s\ in full Titus Lucretius Carus (fl. 1st century bc) Latin poet and philosopher. He is known for his long poem On the Nature of Things, the fullest extant statement of the physical theory of Epicurus. In it Lucretius established the main principles of atomism and refuted the rival theories of Heracleitus, Empedocles, and Anaxagoras; dem¬ onstrated the atomic structure and mortality of the soul; described the mechanics of sense perception, thought, and certain bodily functions; and described the creation and working of the world and of the celestial bod¬ ies and the evolution of life and human society.

Lucullus \lu-'ko-bs\, Lucius Licinius (b. c. 117—d. 57/56 bc) Roman general who served as consul in 74 bc. He fought alongside Sulla and was the only officer to take part in Sulla’s march on Rome. After Sulla’s death Lucullus maintained his power through intrigue. He commanded the legions that drove Mithradates from Bithynia and Pontus to Armenia and later invaded Armenia and defeated its king, Tigranes. Mutinies prevented his complete victory, and Lucullus was replaced by Pompey, whom he opposed in the Senate. His legendary hedonism and extravagance made the word Lucullan a synonym of “lavish.”

Lucy Nickname for a remarkably complete (40% intact) hominin skeleton found by Donald Johanson at Hadar, Eth., in 1974 and dated to 3.2 million years ago. The specimen is usually classified as Australopithecus afarensis and suggests—by having long arms, short legs, an apelike chest and jaw, and a small brain but a relatively humanlike pelvis—that bipedal locomo¬ tion preceded the development of a larger (more humanlike) brain in hom¬ inin evolution. Lucy stood about 3 ft 7 in. (109 cm) tall and weighed about 60 lbs (27 kg). See also Hadar remains; Laetoli footprints; Sterkfontein.

lud \'lud\ Among the Votyak and Zyryan peoples of Russia, a sacred grove, usually consisting of fir trees, where sacrifices were performed. Enclosed by a high fence, the lud contained a place for a fire and tables for the sacrificial meal. It was forbidden to break even a branch from a tree in the grove, which was watched over by a hereditary guardian. The annual sacrificial rite generally centered on an ancient tree dedicated to a deity. All food had to be consumed at the site, and the hides of sacrificed animals were hung from the trees. Groves were sacred in most other Finno-Ugric religions as well.

Luda See Dalian

Luddite Member of organized groups of early 19th-century English craftsmen who surreptitiously destroyed the textile machinery that was replacing them. The movement began in Nottingham in 1811 and spread to other areas in 1812. The Luddites, or “Ludds,” were named after a probably mythical leader, Ned Ludd. They operated at night and often enjoyed local support. Harsh repressive measures by the government included a mass trial at York in 1813 that resulted in many hangings and banishments. The term Luddite was later used to describe anyone opposed to technological change.

Ludendorff Vlii-d^-.dorfV Erich (b. April 9, 1865, Kruszewnia, near Poznan, Prussian Poland—d. Dec.

20, 1937, Munich, Ger.) German general. In 1908 he joined the Ger¬ man army general staff and worked under Helmuth von Moltke in revising the Schlieffen Plan. In World War I he was appointed chief of staff to Paul von Hindenburg, and the two won a spectacular victory at the Battle of Tannenberg. In 1916 the two generals were given supreme military control.

They tried to conduct a total war by mobilizing the entire forces of the home front, and in 1917 Ludendorff approved unrestricted submarine warfare against the British, which led to the U.S. entry into the war. In 1918, after his offensive on the West¬ ern Front failed, he demanded an armistice, but then he insisted the war continue when he realized the sever¬ ity of the Armistice conditions. Political leaders opposed him, and he resigned his post. Ludendorff insisted he had been betrayed, and for the next 20 years he led a bizarre life, becoming a leader of reactionary political movements and taking part in the Kapp Putsch (1920) and Beer Hall Putsch

Erich Ludendorff c. 1930.

ARCHIV FUR KUNST UND GESCHICHTE

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Ludlum ► Lugus I 1147

(1923). He served in Parliament as a National Socialist (1924-28) and developed a belief that “supemational powers”—Jewry, Christianity, Freemasonry—had deprived him and Germany of victory in World War I.

Ludlum, Robert (b. May 25, 1927, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. March 12, 2001, Naples, Fla.) U.S. author of spy thrillers. He worked in the the¬ atre as an actor and a successful producer and acted for television before turning to writing. Among his best-sellers were The Scarlatti Inheritance (1971), The Osterman Weekend (1972; film, 1983), The Matarese Circle (1979), and The Bourne Identity (1980; film, 1988, 2002). Though critics often found his plots unlikely and his prose uninspired, his fast-paced combination of international espionage, conspiracy, and mayhem proved enormously popular.

Ludwig I See Louis I Ludwig II See Louis II Ludwig IV See Louis IV

Ludwig, Carl F(riedrich) W(ilhelm) (b. Dec. 29, 1816, Witzen- hausen, near Kassel, Hesse-Kassel—d. April 23, 1895, Leipzig, Ger.) Ger¬ man physician. He invented devices to record arterial blood-pressure changes, measure blood flow, and separate gases from blood (which estab¬ lished their role in blood purification). He was the first to keep animal organs alive outside the body. His paper on urine secretion in 1844 hypothesized a filtering role for the kidney. Nearly 200 of Ludwig’s stu¬ dents became prominent scientists, and he is regarded as the founder of the physicochemical school of physiology.

Lueger Vlui-goA, Karl (b. Oct. 24, 1844, Vienna, Austria—d. March 10, 1910, Vienna) Austrian politician. He was elected to the Vienna city council (1875) and to the Austrian parliament (1885), and he cofounded the Christian Social Party (1889). He effectively used the prevalent anti- Semitic and German nationalist currents in Vienna to advance his politi¬ cal objectives. He was elected mayor of Vienna in 1895 and transformed the Austrian capital into a modem city, bringing streetcars, electricity, and gas under city government control. He also developed parks, schools, and hospitals. He was instrumental in introducing universal suffrage in Aus¬ tria (1907).

luff a See loofah

Lufthansa in full Deutsche Lufthansa AG One of Europe’s larg¬ est air-passenger, cargo, and airline-services companies. The airline origi¬ nated in 1926 as Deutsche Luft Hansa AG and eventually was flying to destinations in South America and Southeast Asia before service was dis¬ rupted by World War II. The company took its current name in 1954 and began regular passenger air service in 1955. Originally a state-run airline, Lufthansa was privatized in the 1990s and began its multiyear acquisition of Swiss International Airlines in 2005. Lufthansa’s businesses include vacation travel, air freight, and aircraft maintenance.

Lug See Lugus

Lugano \lu-'ga-no. Lake or Lago Ceresio \che-'res-yo\ Lake in Switzerland and Italy, located between Maggiore and Como lakes. Strad¬ dling the border of the two countries, it has an area of 19 sq mi (49 sq km) and a maximum depth of 945 ft (288 m). Between Melide and Bis- sone, the lake is so shallow that a stone dam across it carries the St. Gotthard railway. The resort town of Lugano, on its shores in Switzer¬ land, is Italian in appearance. See photograph above.

Lugard Mu-'gardX, F(rederick) (John) D(ealtry) later Baron Lugard (of Abinger) (b. Jan. 22, 1858, Fort St. George, Madras, India—d. April 11, 1945, Abinger, Surrey, Eng.) British colonial admin¬ istrator. In Nigeria he served as high commissioner (1900-06) and gov¬ ernor and governor-general (1912-19). He fought as an officer in British campaigns in Asia and North Africa before accepting posts with the Brit¬ ish East Africa Company, the Royal Niger Company, and other private enterprises. He succeeded, in advance of the French, in establishing trade routes centred at Buganda, the Middle Niger, and Bechuanaland. As the chief government administrator in Nigeria, he united the disparate north¬ ern and southern districts and greatly influenced British colonial policy by exercising control centrally through native rulers and respecting native legal systems and customs.

Lugdunensis \,l3g-d9-'nen-sis\ Roman province, one of the three administrative divisions of Gaul. It extended northwest from its capital at Lugdunum (modern Lyon) and included the land between the Seine and

Lake Lugano, near Lugano, Switz.

R.G. EVERTS-RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

Loire rivers up to Brittany and the Atlantic coast. It was conquered by Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars and became a Roman province in 27 bc under Augustus.

lugeing Vlti-zhiqX Sled racing using a small sled that is ridden in a supine position. The sled, called a luge, is steered with the feet and subtle shoul¬ der movements. Dating back to the 15th century, lugeing is a traditional winter sport in Austria and is also practiced in other countries. The course used is similar to that employed in bobsledding, and speeds above 90 mph (145 km/hr) are not uncommon. Lugeing became a Winter Olympics sport in 1964.

Lugones Mli-'go-nasV Leopoldo (b. June 13, 1874, Villa Maria del Rio Seco, Arg.—d. Feb. 19, 1938, Buenos Aires) Argentine poet, critic, and cultural ambassador. He initially worked as a journalist but thought of himself primarily as a poet. His early verse, collected in volumes such as Mountains of Gold (1897), reveals his affinity with Modernismo. Later he embraced political conservatism, and his poetry and prose treated national themes in a realistic style. He was director of the National Coun¬ cil of Education from 1914 to 1938 and also produced histories of Argen¬ tina and studies and translations of classical Greek literature. He strongly influenced such younger writers as Jorge Luis Borges.

Lugosi \b-'go-se\, Bela orig. Blasko Bela Ferenc Dezso (b. Oct. 20, 1882, Lugos, Hung.—d. Aug. 16,

1956, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.)

Hungarian-bom U.S. film actor. He acted with the National Theatre in Budapest (1913-19) and appeared in German films before leaving for the U.S. in 1921. He directed and starred in the play Dracula in New York in 1927; he reprised the role, which was ideally suited for his aristocratic manner and heavy accent, in the movie Dracula (1931). His other horror movies include The Black Cat (1934), Mark of the Vampire (1935),

Son of Frankenstein (1939), Fran¬ kenstein Meets the Wolfman (1943), and The Body Snatcher (1945).

Lugosi declined into poverty and obscurity and eventually took roles in low-budget independent films. He was buried wearing the long, black cape that he had worn in Dracula.

Lugus \'lu-g3s\ or Lug Major god of the Celtic religion. In Irish tradi¬ tion, Lug Lamfota (“Lug of the Long Arm”) was the sole survivor of trip¬ let brothers. In Wales, as Lieu Llaw Gyffes (“Lieu of the Dexterous Hand”), he was said to be the son of the virgin goddess Aranrhod. His mother sought to destroy him, but his uncle Gwydion raised him and kept him safe. When his mother denied him a wife, Gwydion created a woman

Lugosi as Count Dracula

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1148 I Luhya ► Lumumba

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for him from flowers. His name is an element in such European and Brit¬ ish place-names as Lyon, Leiden, and Carlisle.

Luhya or Luyia \'lii-yo\ Cluster of several closely related Bantu¬ speaking peoples of western Kenya. They emerged as a coherent group about 1945, when it was politically advantageous to possess a larger eth¬ nic identity. Today, numbering some 3.8 million, the Luhya are the second-largest ethnic group in Kenya. They grow corn, cotton, and sug¬ arcane as cash crops and millet, sorghum, and vegetables as staples, and they also keep livestock. Many have moved to urban areas seeking work.

Luichow Peninsula See Leizhou Peninsula

Luini \lu-'e-ne\, Bernardino (b. c. 1480/85—d. 1532, Milan) Italian painter active in Milan. Little is known of his life. His earliest surviving works are a polyptych in a church near Como (c. 1510) and a fresco, Madonna and Child (1512), at the Cistercian monastery of Chiravalle, near Milan. Working in the Renaissance style, he was a prominent fol¬ lower of Leonardo da Vinci in Lombardy; many of Luini’s frescoes and altarpieces are in Lombardy churches. He also painted mythological sub¬ jects, most notably a Europa and a Cephalus and Procris (c. 1520), origi¬ nally for a Milanese palace.

Lukacs \ , lii-,kach\ / Gyorgy (b. April 13, 1885, Budapest, Hung.—d. June 4, 1971, Budapest) Hungarian philosopher and critic. Bom into a wealthy Jewish family, he joined the Hungarian Communist Party in 1918. In History and Class Consciousness (1923), he developed a Marxist phi¬ losophy of history and laid the basis for his literary criticism by linking the development of form in art with the history of the class struggle. A major figure during the 1956 Hungarian uprising, he was deported but was allowed to return in 1957. His works include the essay collection Soul and Form (1911) and The Historical Novel (1955). His earlier work, especially Theory of the Novel (1920) and History and Class Conscious¬ ness (1923), is now considered superior to his later Stalinist-influenced criticism, which celebrated the official Soviet policy of Socialist Realism.

Luke, Saint (fl. 1st century ad; feast day October 18) In Christian tra¬ dition, the author of the third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. He wrote in Greek and is considered the most literary of the New Testament writers. By his own account, he was not an eyewitness to the ministry of Jesus. He was a companion to St. Paul, who called him the “beloved phy¬ sician,” and he is believed to have accompanied Paul on missionary jour¬ neys to Macedonia and Rome. Though little is known of his life, tradition holds that he was a Gentile and a native of Antioch in Syria and that he died a martyr.

Lula See Luiz Silva

Lula da Silva, Luiz Inacio known as Lula (b. Oct. 6, 1945, Gara- nhuns, Pernambuco state, Braz.) Leader of Brazil’s leftist Workers’ Party. A former factory worker, Lula helped build a labour union movement into an important political party. In 1988 his party swept the municipal elec¬ tions of Sao Paulo and other major cities. A leading contender for presi¬ dent in 1989, 1995, and 1998, proposing policies to help Brazil’s working class, he lost each time to more conservative candidates. In 2002, how¬ ever, he was successful in his bid for the presidency. See also Fernando Collor de Mello.

Lully \lu-'le\, Jean-Baptiste orig. Giovanni Battista Lulli (b.

Nov. 28, 1632, Florence—d. March 22, 1687, Paris, France) Italian-born French composer. He was made a ward of the court after his mother died and was sent to a noble French household at age 13 as valet. There he learned guitar, organ, violin, and dancing and came to know the composer Michel Lambert (1610-96), who introduced him to society and later became his father-in-law. Lully became a dancer and musician for the king and at age 30 was put in charge of all royal music. In the 1660s he com¬ posed the incidental music for Moliere’s plays as well as those of France’s great tragedians. In the early 1670s he obtained the sole patent to present opera and produced the series of “lyric tragedies”—most with librettos by Philippe Quinault (1635-88)—for which he is known, including Alceste (1674), Atys (1676), and Armide (1686). The orchestra he developed was an important forerunner of the modern orchestra. A self-inflicted injury to his toe with his heavy conducting stick led to his death. His style of composition was imitated throughout Europe.

Lully, Raymond See Ramon Llull

lumber Collective term for harvested wood, whether cut into logs, heavy timbers, or members used in light-frame construction. Lumber is classi¬

fied as hardwood or softwood (see wood). The term often refers specifi¬ cally to the products derived from logs in a sawmill. Conversion of logs to sawed lumber involves debarking, sawing into boards or slabs, resaw¬ ing into thinner boards of varying sizes, edging, crosscutting to square the ends and remove defects, grading according to strength and appearance, and drying in the open air or in kilns. Drying below the fiber-saturation point results in shrinkage and generally greater strength, stiffness, and density and better prepares the wood for finishing. Preservatives are often applied to protect the wood from deterioration and decay.

Lumet \Tu-mot\, Sidney (b. June 25, 1924, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. television and film director. He worked as a child actor in the Yid¬ dish theatre and on Broadway. After serving in World War II, he directed plays and taught acting. He directed more than 200 television dramas for CBS (1951-57), including Playhouse 90 and Studio One productions, before making his debut as a movie director with the acclaimed Twelve Angry Men (1957). He went on to direct commercially successful psy¬ chological dramas such as The Fugitive Kind (1960), Fail Safe (1964), Serpico (1973), Dog Day Afternoon (1975), Network (1976), The Verdict (1982), and Night Falls on Manhattan (1997).

Lumiere \ltE-'myer\, Auguste and Louis (respectively b. Oct. 19, 1862, Besangon, France—d. April 10, 1954, Lyon; b. Oct. 5, 1864,

Besangon, France—d. June 6, 1948,

Bandol) French inventors. In 1882 Louis developed a method of mak¬ ing photographic plates, and by 1894 the brothers’ factory was producing 15 million plates a year. They worked on improving Thomas Alva Edison’s Kinetoscope and patented their combination movie camera and projector, the Cinematographe, in 1895. Their film La Sortie des ouvri- ers de I’usine Lumiere (“Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory”), which they showed to a paying audi¬ ence in Paris in 1895, is considered the first motion picture. In 1896 the brothers, led by Louis, made more than 40 films recording everyday French life. They made the first news¬ reels, sending crews all over the world to shoot new material and show their films. In addition to the films he directed, Louis served as producer for some 2,000 films. The brothers also made basic innovations in colour photography.

luminaire or light fixture Complete lighting unit, consisting of one or more lamps (bulbs or tubes that emit light), along with the socket and other parts that hold the lamp in place and protect it, wiring that connects the lamp to a power source, and a reflector that helps direct and distrib¬ ute the light. Fluorescent fixtures usually have lenses or louvers to shield the lamp (thus reducing glare) and redirect the light emitted. Luminaires include both portable and ceiling- or wall-mounted fixtures.

luminescence Process by which an excited material emits light in a process not caused solely by a rise in temperature. The excitation is usu¬ ally achieved with ultraviolet radiation, X rays, electrons, alpha particles, electric fields, or chemical energy. The colour, or wavelength, of the light emitted is determined by the material, while the intensity depends on both the material and the input energy. Examples of luminescence include light emissions from neon lamps, luminescent watch dials, television and com¬ puter screens, fluorescent lamps, and fireflies. See also bioluminescence; fluorescence; phosphorescence.

luminism Painting style that emphasizes a particular clarity of light. It is characteristic of the works of a group of U.S. painters of the late 19th century, influenced by the Hudson River school. Typically landscapes or seascapes, with sky occupying nearly half the composition, luminist works are distinguished by cool, clear colours and meticulously detailed objects modeled by light. The most prominent luminist painters were John Frederick Kensett, Martin Johnson Heade, and Fitz Hugh Lane.

Lumumba Uo-'mum-boV, Patrice (Hemery) (b. July 2, 1925, Onalua, Belgian Congo—d. January 1961, Katanga province, Republic of the Congo) African nationalist leader, first prime minister of the Demo¬ cratic Republic of the Congo (June-September 1960). Lumumba worked as a trade-union organizer before founding the Mouvement National Con-

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Luna ► lupine I 1149

golais, Congo’s first nationwide political party, in 1958. That same year his militant nationalism at a major Pan-African conference in Accra, Ghana, brought him to promi¬ nence. During negotiations in Bel¬ gium in 1960, he was asked to form the first independent Congolese gov¬ ernment. His rival Moise Tshombe immediately announced the seces¬ sion of Katanga province. When Bel¬ gian troops arrived to sustain the secession, Lumumba appealed first to the UN and then to the Soviet Union. He was dismissed by Pres.

Joseph Kasavubu and, a short time later, assassinated by Tshombe loy¬ alists. His death caused a scandal throughout Africa, where he was looked on as a leader of Pan-Africanism.

Luna Any of a series of unmanned Soviet lunar probes, launched between 1959 and 1976, responsible for various lunar “firsts.” Luna 2 (1959) was the first spacecraft to strike the Moon; Luna 3 (1959) was the first to circle the Moon and took the first photographs of its far side. Luna 9 (1966) made the first successful lunar soft landing. Luna 16 (1970) was the first unmanned spacecraft to carry lunar soil samples back to Earth. Luna 17 (1970) soft-landed a robot vehicle for exploration; it also con¬ tained television equipment and sent live pictures of several miles of the Moon’s surface. See also Pioneer; Ranger; Surveyor.

Luna See Selene

luna moth Species (Actias luna ) of saturniid moth of eastern North America. Lunas are pale green and have a wingspread of 4 in. (10 cm). The wings have a thin brown border, and each hind wing has a long tail¬ like projection. The larvae feed on the leaves of many kinds of trees and shrubs. See also moth.

Lunacharsky, Anatoly (Vasilyevich) (b. Nov. 23, 1875, Poltava, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Dec. 26, 1933, Menton, France) Russian politician and writer. Deported in 1898 for his revolutionary activities, he joined the Bolsheviks in 1904 and disseminated propaganda to Russian students and political refugees in foreign countries. He joined Vladimir Ilich Lenin in Russia in 1917 and was appointed commissar for education, a role in which he did much to ensure the preservation of works of art dur¬ ing the Russian Civil War. He encouraged innovation in the theatre and in education, and he published plays of his own.

Lunceford Vlons-fordV Jimmie orig. James Melvin Lunceford

(b. June 6, 1902, Fulton, Miss., U.S.—d. July 12, 1947, Seaside, Ore.) U.S. jazz musician and bandleader. Lunceford was a well-schooled musi¬ cian who played saxophone and taught music before forming a band in 1929. Trumpeter and arranger Sy Oliver (1910-88) joined in 1933, bring¬ ing a crisp ensemble sound to the two-beat rhythmic approach of the band. Lunceford’s band gained national attention after he succeeded Cab Cal¬ loway at Harlem’s Cotton Club in 1934, and it was thereafter counted among the finest big bands of the swing era, rivaling those of Duke Elling¬ ton and Count Basie in popularity.

Lunda empire See Luba-Lunda states

Lundy, Benjamin (b. January 4, 1789, Sussex county, N.J., U.S.—d. Aug. 22, 1839, Lowell, Ill.) U.S. abolitionist and publisher. He worked in Virginia and Ohio, where he organized the Union Humane Society (1815), one of the first antislavery societies. In 1821 he founded a news¬ paper, the Genius of Universal Emancipation, which he edited in various places until 1835, when he began publishing another paper, the National Enquirer (later the Pennsylvania Freeman), in Philadelphia. He traveled in search of places for former slaves to settle, including Canada and Haiti.

lung Either of two light, spongy, elastic organs in the chest, used for breathing. Each is enclosed in a membrane (pleura). Contraction of the diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs draw air into the lungs through the trachea, which splits into two primary bronchi, one per lung. Each bronchus branches into secondary bronchi (one per lobe of lung), tertiary bronchi (one per segment of lung), and many bronchioles leading to the pulmonary alveoli. There oxygen in the inspired gas is exchanged for car¬ bon dioxide from the blood in the surrounding capillaries. Adequate tissue

oxygen supply depends on sufficient distribution of air (ventilation) and blood (perfusion) in the lungs. Lung injuries or diseases (e.g., emphysema, embolism, pneumonia) can affect either or both.

lung cancer Malignant tumour of the lung. Four major types (squamous-cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, large-cell carcinoma, and small-cell carcinoma) have roughly equal prevalence. Most cases are due to long-term cigarette smoking. Heavy smoking and starting smoking ear¬ lier in life increase the risk. Passive inhalation (“secondhand smoke”) is linked to lung cancer in nonsmokers. Other risk factors include exposure to radon or asbestos. Symptoms, including coughing (sometimes with blood), chest pain, and shortness of breath, seldom appeal - until lung can¬ cer is advanced, when treatment with surgery, chemotherapy, and radia¬ tion or some combination of the three is less effective. Most patients die within a year of diagnosis.

lung congestion Distention of blood vessels in the lungs and filling of the pulmonary alveou with blood. It results from infection, hypertension, or inadequate heart function (e.g., left-sided heart failure). Congestion seriously impairs gas exchange, leading to breathing difficulty, bloody discharge in sputum, and bluish skin tint.

Lung-men caves See Longmen caves Lung-shan culture See Longshan culture

Luni River \'lu-ne\ River, Rajasthan state, western India. Rising in the western Aravalli Range, where it is known as the Sagarmati, it flows southwest and enters a patch of desert before dissipating into the Rann of Kachchh, after a total course of 330 mi (530 km). Its Sanskrit name is Lavanavari (“Salt River”), referring to its high salinity. The major river in the region, it serves as a source of irrigation.

Lunt, Alfred and Lynn Fontanne orig. Lillie Louise Fontanne

(respectively b. Aug. 19, 1892, Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.—d. Aug. 3, 1977, Chicago, Ill.; b. Dec. 6, 1887, Essex, Eng.—d. July 30, 1983, Genesee Depot, Wis.) U.S. acting team. Lunt made his acting debut in Boston in 1912 and starred in Clarence on Broadway (1919). Fontanne made her acting debut in London in 1909 and in New York City in 1910. She and Lunt married in 1922 and performed with the Theatre Guild from 1924 to 1929. They acted together in more than 25 plays, including The Guards¬ men (1924) and Design for Living (1933), the latter of which Noel Cow¬ ard wrote for them. Considered the foremost acting couple of the U.S. theatre, they were acclaimed for the subtlety and effortless cooperation of their performances, especially in comedies by Coward and George Ber¬ nard Shaw.

Lunyu \Tun-'yiB\ English Analects One of four Confucian texts that, when published together in 1190 by Zhu Xi, made up the Four Books. Scholars consider Lunyu the most reliable source of the doctrine of Con¬ fucius. It covers almost all the basic ethical concepts of Confucianism— for example, ren (benevolence), junzi (the superior man), Tian (Heaven), zhong yong (doctrine of the mean), li (proper conduct), and zheng ming (rectification of names). It also contains many direct quotations from Confucius and personal glimpses of the sage as recorded by his disciples. See also Neo-Confucianism; Zhong yong.

Luo \b-'wo\ People of the flat country near Lake Victoria in western Kenya and northern Uganda. They speak a language of the Nilo-Saharan family. Numbering 3.2 million, the Luo are the third-largest ethnic group in Kenya. They are settled agriculturalists who also keep cattle; many work as agricultural labourers and in urban occupations. Most are Chris¬ tians. See also Nilot.

Lupercalia N.lu-psr-'ka-le-oV Ancient Roman festival held each Febru¬ ary 15. Its origins are uncertain, but the likely derivation of its name from lupus (Latin: “wolf’) may signal a connection with a primitive deity who protected herds from wolves or with the legendary she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus. Each Lupercalia began with the sacrifice of goats and a dog; two of its priests (Luperci) were then led to the altar and their fore¬ heads were anointed with blood. After all had feasted, the Luperci cut thongs from the skins of the sacrificed animals and ran around the Palatine hill, striking at any woman who came near them; a blow from the thong was supposed to bestow fertility.

lupine or lupin \Tu-pon\ Any of about 200 species of herbaceous and partly woody plants that make up the genus Lupinus in the pea family (see legume), found throughout the Mediterranean and especially on the prairies of western North America. Many are grown in the U.S. as orna-

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1150 I Lupino family ► lute

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mentals, and a few species are useful as cover or forage crops. Herba¬ ceous lupines, which grow up to 4 ft (1.25 m) tall, have low, divided leaves and an upright flower spike, and many are hybridized for gardens. The name comes from the Latin for “wolf’ because these plants were once thought to deplete, or “wolf,” minerals from the soil; in actuality some species aid soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.

Lupino \lu-'pe-no\ family British theatrical family. The earliest mem¬ ber, Signor Luppino, flourished c. 1610, probably in Italy. His descendant George William Luppino (1632-93), a puppet master, immigrated to England as a political refugee. A later descendant, the scenic artist and dancer Thomas Frederick Lupino (1749-1845), changed the spelling of the family name. Another family member, George Hook Lupino (1820- 1902), had 16 children, 10 of whom were dancers. His eldest son, George Lupino (1853-1932), was a famous clown; George’s son Barry Lupino (1884-1962) excelled in pantomime and musical comedy; another son, Stanley Lupino (1894-1942), performed in comedy revues. Stanley’s nephew Henry Lupino (1892-1959), a Cockney comedian known as Lupino Lane, created the “Lambeth walk” dance in the musical Me and My Girl (1937). Stanley’s daughter Ida Lupino (1916-95) moved in 1934 to the U.S., where she starred in movies such as They Drive by Night (1940), The Sea Wolf (1941), and The Hard Way (1942). One of the first female film directors, she was noted for The Hitch-Hiker (1953) and The Bigamist (1953), and she also directed several dramas for television.

lupus erythematosus Vlii-pos-.er-o-.the-mo-'to-sosV Either of two inflammatory autoimmune diseases, both more common in women. In the discoid type, a skin disease, red patches with grayish brown scales appear on the upper cheeks and nose (often in a butterfly pattern), scalp, lips, and/or inner cheeks. Sunlight worsens it. Antimalarial drugs may help. The second type, systemic (disseminated) lupus erythematosus (SLE), may affect any organ or structure, especially the skin (with marks like those of the discoid type), kidneys, heart, nervous system, serous (moisture-forming) membranes (e.g., in synovial joints or lining the abdo¬ men), and lymph nodes, with acute episodes and remissions. Symptoms vary widely. Kidney and central-nervous-system involvement can be life- threatening. Treatment includes pain relief, control of inflammation, and trying to limit damage to vital organs.

Luria, A(leksandr) R(omanovich) (b. July 3, 1902, Kazan, Russia—d. 1977) Soviet neuropsychologist. After earning degrees in psy¬ chology, education, and medicine, he became professor of psychology at Moscow State University and later head of its department of neuropsy¬ chology. Influenced by his former teacher L.S. Vygotsky, he studied lan¬ guage disorders and the role of speech in mental development and retardation. During World War II Luria made advances in brain surgery and in the restoration of brain functions after trauma. He also developed theories concerning the functioning of the frontal lobe and the existence of zones of brain cells working in concert. His books include Higher Cor¬ tical Functions in Man (1966), The Working Brain (1973), and Basic Problems of Neurolinguistics (1976).

Luria \'lur-ya\, Isaac ben Solomon (b. 1534, Jerusalem—d. Aug. 5, 1572, Safed, Syria) Jewish mystic and founder of a school of Kabbala. He was brought up in Egypt, where he pursued rabbinic studies. He dedi¬ cated himself to the study of the Kabbala with messianic fervour, and in 1570 he journeyed to a centre of the movement in Galilee. He died two years later in an epidemic, having written little. The Lurianic Kabbala, a collection of Luria’s doctrines recorded after his death by a pupil, had great influence on later Jewish mysticism and on Hasidism. It propounds a theory of the creation and later degeneration of the world and calls for restoration of the original harmony through ritual meditation and secret combinations of words.

Luria \'lur-e-3\, Salvador (Edward) (b. Aug. 13, 1912, Turin, Italy—d. Feb. 6, 1991, Lexington, Mass., U.S.) Italian-born U.S. biolo¬ gist. He fled Italy for France in 1938, arriving in the U.S. in 1940. In 1942 he obtained an electron micrograph of phage particles that confirmed ear¬ lier descriptions of them as consisting of a round head and a thin tail. In 1943 he and Max DelbrOck showed that viruses can undergo permanent changes in their hereditary material. He also proved that the simultaneous existence of phage-resistant bacteria with phage-sensitive bacteria in the same culture was a result of the selection of spontaneous bacterial mutants. In 1945 he and A.D. Hershey demonstrated the existence not only of such bacterial mutants but also of spontaneous phage mutants. The three men shared a 1969 Nobel Prize.

Luristan Bronze Vlur-o-.stanV or Lorestan Bronze \'16r-3-,stan\ Objects excavated since the late 1920s in the valleys of the Zagros Moun¬ tains in the Luristan region of western Iran. Dating from c. 1500 to c. 500 bc, they consist of utensils, weapons, jewelry, horse trappings, belt buck¬ les, and ritual and votive objects. They are believed to have been pro¬ duced either by the Cimmerians or by Indo-European peoples of Media or Persia.

Lusaka \lu-'sa-ka\ City (pop., 1999 est.: metro, area, 1,577,000), capi¬ tal of Zambia. In the 1890s the area was taken by the British South Africa Company during the formation of Northern Rhodesia; it became the capi¬ tal in 1935. After the federation of Northern and Southern Rhodesia in 1953, it was a centre of the civil disobedience movement that led to the creation of the independent state of Zambia in 1960, with Lusaka as its capital. Possessing some light industry, it is also a commercial centre for the surrounding agricultural region. The University of Zambia (founded 1965) is located nearby.

Lushun VliB-'shuM or Lu-shun formerly Port Arthur Former city, since 1950 a district of Dalian city, Liaoning province, northeastern China. Situated at the southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, it was used as a staging post as early as the 2nd century bc. Fortified under the Ming dynasty, it was captured by the Manchus in 1633 and served as the seat of a defense unit under the Qing dynasty. In 1878 it became the chief base for China’s first modem naval force. Leased to Russia in 1898, it was captured by Japan (1905) during the Russo-Japanese War and was made the seat of a provincial government. Under a 1945 treaty it became a Sino-Soviet military base; the Soviet forces withdrew in 1955.

Lusitania British ocean liner sunk by a German submarine off the coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915. The British Admiralty had warned the Lusi¬ tania to avoid the area and to use the evasive tactic of zigzagging, but the crew ignored these recommendations. Though unarmed, the ship was car¬ rying munitions for the Allies, and the Germans had circulated warnings that the ship would be sunk. The loss of life—1,198 people drowned, including 128 U.S. citizens—outraged public opinion. The U.S. protested Germany’s action, and Germany limited its submarine campaign against Britain. When Germany renewed unrestricted submarine warfare, the U.S. entered World War I in April 1917.

Lussac, Joseph Gay- See Joseph Gay-Lussac

lustre In mineralogy, the appearance of a mineral surface in terms of its light-reflecting qualities. Lustre depends on a mineral’s refractivity (see refraction), transparency, and structure. Variations in these properties pro¬ duce different kinds of lustre, from metallic (e.g., gold) to dull (e.g., chalk).

lustred glass or lustered glass Art glass of the Art Nouveau style, delicately iridescent with rich colours, mimicking the iridescent sheen produced by the corrosion of ancient buried glassware. In 1893 Louis Comfort Tiffany founded the Stourbridge Glass Co. to produce lustred drinking glasses, bowls, vases, lamps, and jewelry. His lustred glass, pro¬ duced by metallic pigments applied to opaque glass, produced a pearly sheen, whereas that produced in Europe in the 1870s used transparent glass, which resulted in a mirrorlike surface. Tiffany’s wares were so popular that he made thousands of pieces annually until 1933.

lute Plucked stringed instrument popular in 16th-17th-century

Europe. It originated from the Arab C UD, which reached Europe in the 13 th century. Like the c ud, the lute has a deep pear-shaped body with an ornamental soundhole, a fretted neck with a bent-back pegbox, and strings hitched to a bridge glued to the instrument’s belly. In later years it acquired several unstopped bass strings. It became the preferred instrument for cultivated amateur musicians and acquired an extensive literature of song accompaniments

Angel playing a lute, from "Presenta¬ tion in the Temple," painted altarpiece by Vittore Carpaccio, 1510; in the Accademia, Venice.

and solo and consort music.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Luther ► Luxembourg I 1151

Luther, Martin (b. Nov. 10, 1483, Eisleben, Saxony—d. Feb. 18, 1546, Eisleben) German priest who sparked the Reformation. The son of a miner, he studied philosophy and law before entering an Augustinian monastery in 1505. He was ordained two years later and continued his theological studies at the University of Wittenberg, where he became a professor of biblical studies. He was shocked by the corruption of the clergy on a trip to Rome in 1510 and was later troubled by doubts centring on fear of divine retributive justice. His spiritual crisis was resolved when he hit on the idea of justification by faith, the doctrine that salvation is granted as a gift through God’s grace. He urged reform of the Roman Catholic church, protesting the sale of indulgences and other abuses, and in 1517 he dis¬ tributed to the archbishop of Mainz and several friends his Ninety-Five Theses (according to legend, Luther nailed the theses to the door of the castle church in Wittenberg); the theses questioned Roman Catholic teach¬ ing and called for reform. In 1521 he was excommunicated by Pope Leo IX and declared an outlaw at the Diet of Worms (see Worms, Diet of). Under the protection of the elector of Saxony, Luther took refuge in Wart- burg. There he translated the Bible into German; his superbly vigorous translation has long been regarded as the greatest landmark in the history of the German ianguage. He later returned to Wittenberg, and in 1525 he married the former nun Katherina von Bora, with whom he raised six children. Though his preaching was the principal spark that set off the Peasants' War (1524-25), his vehement denunciation of the peasants con¬ tributed to their defeat. His break with Rome led to the founding of the Lutheran Church (see Lutheranism); the Lutheran confession of faith or, Augsburg Confession, was produced with Luther’s sanction by Philipp Melanchthon in 1530. Luther’s writings included hymns, a liturgy, and many theological works.

Lutheranism Protestant movement founded on the principles of Mar¬ tin Luther. Lutheranism arose at the start of the Reformation, after Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg. It spread through much of Ger¬ many and into Scandinavia, where it was established by law. It was brought to the New World by the colonists of New Netherland and New Sweden and spread through the U.S. Middle Atlantic states in the 18th century and the Midwest in the 19th century. Its doctrines are contained in the catechisms of Luther and in the Augsburg Confession. Lutheran doctrine emphasizes salvation by faith alone and the primacy of the Bible as the church’s authority. The Lutheran ministry is one of service—not special status—and is described as the priesthood of all believers. Luth¬ erans accept two sacraments (baptism and the Eucharist) and believe in predestination to salvation. The Lutheran World Federation is based in Geneva. See also Pietism.

lutite Vlii-.thA Any fine-grained sedimentary rock consisting of clay- or silt-sized particles (less than 0.0025 in., or 0.06 mm, in diameter) that are derived principally from nonmarine (continental) rocks. Laminated lutites and lutites that split easily into thin layers are usually called shales. Other lutites may be called claystones, siltstones, or mudstones.

Lutostawski Uu-to-'slav-skeV Witold (b. Jan. 25, 1913, Warsaw, Pol.—d. Feb. 7, 1994, Warsaw) Polish composer. Trained in Warsaw, he initially became known as a pianist. His international reputation was secured by the premiere of his Concerto for Orchestra (1954), full of colour and based on folk elements, and later the Funeral Music for string orchestra (1958). From the late 1950s he incorporated limited aleatory (elements of chance; see aleatory music) effects in his works. His four bril¬ liantly orchestrated symphonies, particularly the Second (1967) and Third (1983), are widely admired, as are his Livre pour orchestra (1968) and his String Quartet (1964).

Lutuli Ma-'tu-leV Albert (John Mvumbi) (b. 1898, Rhodesia—d. July 21, 1967, Stanger, S.Af.) Zulu chief and president of the African National Congress (1952-60). Trained at a mission school, Lutuli taught and served a small community as chief before being elected ANC presi¬ dent. He was frequently imprisoned for his anti-apartheid activities. He set forth his views in Let My People Go (1962). In 1960 he became the first African to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.

Lutyens Vb-chonzV Sir Edwin L(andseer) (b. March 29, 1869, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 1, 1944, London) British architect. His design for a house at Munstead Wood, Godaiming, Surrey (1896), created for Ger¬ trude Jekyll, established his reputation. In the series of country houses he subsequently designed, many in collaboration with Jekyll, Lutyens adapted past styles to contemporary domestic life in delightful and origi¬ nal ways. For the new Indian capital at Delhi, he devised a plan based on

a series of hexagons separated by broad avenues; his most important building there, the Viceroy’s House (1912-30), combined aspects of Clas¬ sical architecture with Indian motifs. After World War I he became archi¬ tect to the Imperial War Graves Commission, for which he designed the Cenotaph in London (1919-20) and other memorials.

Luxembourg Vluk-som-.biirkA English Ybk-som-.borgV officially Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Country, western Europe. Area: 999 sq mi (2,586 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 457,000. Capital: Luxembourg.

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Most of the population is ethnically French or German, though there is a proportion of foreign residents, chiefly Portuguese, Ital¬ ians, French, Belgians, and Germans. Lan¬ guages: Luxembourgian, French, German.

Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic). Currency: euro. The country has a maximum length of 51 mi (82 km) and a maximum width of 35 mi (56 km). It is divided into two regions: the Oesling, an extension of the Ardennes Mountains in the northern third of the country consisting of a high plateau dissected by river valleys; and the Bon Pays, or Gutland, a rolling plateau that occupies the rest of the land. Luxembourg’s economy is largely based on heavy industry and international trade and banking, and its per capita income is among the highest in the world. It is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the grand duke, and the head of government is the prime minister. At the time of Roman conquest (53 bc), the area was inhabited by two Belgic tribes, the Treveri and the Mediomatrici. After ad 400, Germanic tribes invaded the region. It later came into Charlemagne’s empire. Made a duchy in 1354, it was ceded to the house of Burgundy in 1443 and to the Habsburgs in 1477. In the mid- 16th century it became part of the Spanish Netherlands. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 made it a grand duchy and awarded it to The Netherlands. After an uprising in 1830, its western portion became part of Belgium, while the remainder was held by The Netherlands. In 1867 the European powers guaranteed the neutrality and independence of Luxembourg. In the late 19th century it built a great steel industry by exploiting its extensive iron ore deposits. It was invaded and occupied by Germany in both world wars. Following World War II, it abandoned its neutrality by joining NATO in 1949. It joined the Benelux Economic Union in 1944 and the European Coal and Steel Community, a forerunner of the European Union, in 1952. Luxembourg ratified the Maastricht Treaty on European Union in 1992 and adopted the euro as its official monetary unit in 1999.

Luxembourg City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 76,833), capital of Luxembourg. A rocky promontory along the Alzette River was the site of a Roman for¬ tress and later of a Frankish castle, around which the medieval town developed. Siegfried, count of Ardennes, purchased this castle and made the duchy of Luxembourg independent in 963. The strongest in Europe

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1152 I Luxemburg ► Lydia

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after Gibraltar, the castle was garrisoned by the Prussians as a bulwark of the German Confederation (1815-66); it was dismantled by treaty in 1867. Long an important road and railway focus, the city is also an impor¬ tant industrial and financial centre. It is the seat of the European Court of Justice and several administrative offices of the European Union.

Luxemburg Vluk-som-.burkA English Vlok-som-.bargV Rosa (b. March 5, 1871, Zamosc, Pol., Rus¬ sian Empire—d. Jan. 15, 1919, Ber¬ lin, Ger.) Polish-bom German political radical, intellectual, and author. As a Jew in Russian- controlled Poland, she was drawn early into underground political activism. In 1889 she fled to Zurich,

Switz., where she obtained her doc¬ torate. Having become involved in the international socialist movement, in 1892 she cofounded what would become the Polish Communist Party.

The Russian Revolution of 1905 con¬ vinced her that the world revolution would originate in Russia. She advo¬ cated the mass strike as the proletari¬ at’s most important tool. Imprisoned R osa Luxemburg, in Warsaw for agitation, she then interfoto/friedrich rauch, Munich moved to Berlin to teach and write

(1907-14). Early in World War I she cofounded the Spartacus League (see Spartacists), and in 1918 she oversaw its transformation into the German Communist Party; she was murdered during the Spartacus Revolt less than a month later. She believed in a democratic path to socialism after a world revolution to overthrow capitalism and opposed what she recognized as Vladimir Ilich Lenin’s emerging dictatorship.

Luxemburgian Dialect of German spoken exclusively in Luxembourg. A Moselle-Franconian dialect of the West Middle German group, enriched by many French words and phrases, Luxemburgian is spoken by all classes. Luxembourg’s population is generally bilingual or trilingual. Lux¬ emburgian is mostly used orally, French in government and the courts, and German in newspapers; all three languages are used in the schools.

Luxor Vlsk-.sor, 'luk-.sorN Arabic Al-Uqsur City (pop., 1996: 360,503), Upper Egypt. Its name has been given to the southern half of the ruins of Thebes. It is centred on the Great Temple of Amon, which was built on the eastern bank of the Nile River by King Amenhotep III in the 14th century bc. Tutankhamen and Horemheb completed the temple, and Ramses II added to it. Ruins include pillars and courts of the original temple as well as the remains of Coptic churches and a mosque. The modern city serves as a tourist centre and as a market for the surrounding agricultural district. See also Karnak.

luxury tax Excise levy on goods or services considered to be luxuries rather than necessities (e.g., jewelry and perfume). Luxury taxes may be levied with the intent of taxing the rich or in a deliberate effort to alter consumption patterns, either for moral reasons or in times of national emergency. Today revenue productivity generally overshadows the moral argument.

Luyia See Luhya

Luzon \lii-'z6n\ Island (pop., 2000: 37,909,589), Philippines. The coun¬ try’s largest island, with an area of 40,420 sq mi (104,688 sq km), it is the site of Quezon City and Manila, the nation’s capital. Located in the northern Philippine archipelago, it is bounded by the Philippine Sea, the Sibuyan Sea, and the South China Sea, and it is separated from Taiwan by the Luzon Strait. It represents one-third of the country’s land area and half of its population. It is largely mountainous; in 1991 the eruption of Mount Pinatubo altered the island’s geography. It is the country’s leader in both industry and agriculture.

Luzon Strait Passage between northern Luzon, Philippines, and south¬ ern Taiwan. Connecting the China Sea on the west with the Philippine Sea on the east, and extending 200 mi (320 km), it is part of an important shipping route. A series of channels, it is dotted with the islands of the Batan and Babuyan island groups.

Lviv \l9-'ve-u,\ English \l3-'vef\ or Lvov Mo-'voA City (pop., 2001: 733,000), western Ukraine. Founded c. 1256 by Prince Daniel of Galicia,

it came under Polish rule in 1349. Lviv became one of the great medi¬ eval trading towns and changed hands many times. It was taken by the Cossacks in 1648 and by the Swedes in 1704. Given to Austria in 1772, it became the capital of the Austrian province of Galicia. It passed to Poland in 1919, after an unsuccessful attempt by Ukrainians to set up a republic (1918). It was seized by the Soviet Union in 1939 and, after Ger¬ man occupation, annexed by the Soviets in 1945. It is now a centre for Ukrainian culture and the seat of a university (founded 1661).

Lvov \l3-'v6f\, Georgy (Yevgenyevich), Prince (b. Nov. 2, 1861, Popovka, near Tula, Russia—d. March 7, 1925, Paris, France) Russian politician, first head of the provisional government established during the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1905 he joined the liberal Constitutional Democratic Party and was elected to the first Duma (1906). He became chairman of the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos (1914) and won the respect of political liberals and army commanders. In March 1917 he became premier but was unable to satisfy the increasingly radical demands of the populace. He resigned in July, after a major left-wing demonstration, in favour of Aleksandr Kerensky. Arrested when the Bol¬ sheviks seized power, he escaped and settled in Paris.

Lyallpur See Faisalabad

Lyautey \lyo-'ta\, Louis-Hubert-Gonzalve (b. Nov. 17, 1854, Nancy, France—d. July 21, 1934, Thorey) French soldier and first colo¬ nial administrator in Morocco under the protectorate (1912-56). Early in his career he served in French Indochina, Madagascar, and Algeria. As resident general in Morocco (1912-24), he pacified the colony and advo¬ cated the principle of indirect rule.

Lycaonia \,lI-ka- , o-ne-3\ Ancient region, southern Anatolia. Situated north of the Taurus Mountains in present-day Turkey, in ancient times it was bounded by the regions of Caria and Pamphylia. It was ruled by Alex¬ ander the Great, the Seleucids, the Attalids, and, finally, the Romans. Under Rome it was attached to Galatia and Cappadocia. From Seleucid times on, Iconium (modem Konya) served as its capital. It was visited by St. Paul and by the 4th century had developed an organized ecclesiastical system.

lyceum Ml-'se-omV movement Form of adult education popular in the U.S. during the mid-19th century. The lyceums were voluntary local asso¬ ciations that sponsored lectures and debates on topics of current interest. The first was founded in 1826, and by 1834 there were approximately 3,000 in the Northeast and Midwest. They attracted such speakers as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Frederick Douglass, Henry David Thoreau, Daniel Webster, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Susan B. Anthony. The movement began to decline with the outbreak of the Civil War and eventually blended into the postbellum Chautauqua movement. In their heyday the lyceums contrib¬ uted to the broadening of the school curricula and the development of local museums and libraries.

lychee See litchi

Lycia Vli-shoV Ancient district, southwestern Anatolia. Located along the Mediterranean Sea coast in present-day Turkey, in ancient times it was situated between the regions of Caria and Pamphylia. By the 8th century bc it was a thriving maritime country. It later fell to king Cyrus II of the Persian Achaemenian dynasty. Annexed to Roman Pamphylia in ad 43, after the 4th century it became a separate Roman province.

Lycurgus \U-'k3r-g3s\ (fl. 7th century bc?) Legendary founder of the legal institutions of ancient Sparta. Because ancient sources give differ¬ ing accounts of his career, some scholars conclude that he was not a his¬ torical person, but many believe that a man named Lycurgus instituted drastic reforms in Sparta after the revolt of the helots in the 7th century bc. Lycurgus is thought to have devised the militarized communal system that made Sparta unique among Greek city-states and to have determined the powers of the council and the assembly.

Lycurgus (b. c. 390— d. 324 bc) Athenian orator and statesman. He sup¬ ported Demosthenes in opposing Macedonia. As controller of state finances (338-326), he was noted for his efficient administration and vigorous prosecution of corrupt officials. He reconstituted the army and remodeled the fleet, carried on a major building program that included reconstruc¬ tion of the theatre of Dionysus, produced the official edition of the dra¬ mas of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and worked to restore Athenian cults and festivals.

Lydia Ancient land, western Anatolia. Located in present-day Turkey, it was bounded on the west by the Aegean Sea and profoundly influenced

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

lye ► Lynd I 1153

the Ionian Greeks in the 7th-6th centuries bc through such economic developments as the use of metallic coinage. It was conquered by the Per¬ sians under Cyrus II in 546 bc. It later passed to Syria and Pergamum, and under the Romans it became part of the province of Asia.

lye Alkaline (see alkali) liquid extracted by soaking wood ashes in water, commonly used for washing and in making soap. More generally, lye is any strong alkaline solution or solid, such as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (caustic potash).

Lyell Vli-olX, Sir Charles (b. Nov. 14, 1797, Kinnordy, Forfarshire, Scot.—d. Feb. 22, 1875, London,

Eng.) Scottish geologist. While studying law at the University of Oxford, he became interested in geology and later met such notable geologists as Alexander von Humboldt and Georges Cuvier. Lyell came to believe that there were natural (as opposed to supernatural) explana¬ tions for all geologic phenomena, a position he supported with many examples in his three-volume Prin¬ ciples of Geology (1830—33). A rec¬ ognized leader in his field, he gained the friendship of other well-known men of science, including the Her- SCHEL FAMILY and CHARLES DARWIN, whose Origin of Species (1859) per¬ suaded Lyell to accept evolution.

Lyell was largely responsible for the general acceptance of the concept of uniformitarianism in geology.

Lyly \'li-le\, John (b. 1554?, Kent,

Eng.—d. November 1606, London) English writer. Educated at Oxford, Lyly gained fame in London with two prose romances, Euphues (1578) and Euphues and His England (1580). The novels inspired euphuism, an elegant, extravagant Elizabethan literary style, and made Lyly the first English prose stylist to leave an enduring impression on the language. As a dramatist he also contributed to the development of prose dialogue in English comedy, a genre to which he devoted himself almost exclusively after 1580. Endimion (performed 1588) is considered his finest play.

Lyme disease Tick-borne bacterial disease. It was identified in 1975 and named for Old Lyme, Conn. It is caused by a spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, transmitted by ticks, which pick it up in the blood of infected animals, mostly deer. Humans can be bitten by ticks in tall grass or fallen leaves. Lyme disease has three stages: a target-shaped rash, often with flulike symptoms; migrating arthritic pain and neurological symptoms (disturbances to memory, vision, or locomotion); and crippling arthritis with symptoms like those of multiple sclerosis and sometimes with facial paralysis, meningitis, or memory loss. Most cases do not progress beyond the first stage, but those that do reach the third stage within two years. Prevention involves avoiding tick bites. Diagnosis can be difficult, espe¬ cially if the initial rash is not noticed. Early antibiotic treatment can pre¬ vent progression. Advanced cases need more powerful antibiotics, and symptoms may recur.

lymph Pale fluid that bathes tissues, maintaining fluid balance and removing bacteria. It enters the blood system at a vein under the collar¬ bone that it reaches via channels and ducts, being driven through them mainly by surrounding muscle activity. The lymphatic organs (spleen and thymus) and lymph nodes filter out bacteria and other particles the lymph takes up from body tissues. Lymph contains lymphocytes and macrophages, the primary cells of the immune system. See also lymphatic system.

lymph node Small, rounded mass of lymphoid tissue contained in con¬ nective tissue. They occur all along lymphatic vessels, with clusters in cer¬ tain areas (e.g., neck, groin, armpits). They filter bacteria and other foreign materials out of lymph and expose them to lymphocytes and macrophages that can engulf them; these cells multiply in response to accumulation of such materials, which is why lymph nodes swell during infections. The nodes also produce lymphocytes and antibodies, to be carried by lymph throughout the lymphatic system. In Hodgkin disease and other lymphomas, malignant lymph cells proliferate, causing lymph node enlargement. Other cancers often invade lymphatic vessels, which can carry cells from the

tumour to lymph nodes, where they are trapped and grow into secondary tumours. Lymph nodes are therefore removed in cancer surgery to detect or prevent tumour spread.

lymphatic system System of lymph nodes, vessels, and nodules and lym¬ phoid tissue, including the thymus, spleen, tonsils, and bone marrow, through which lymph circulates and is filtered. Its primary function is to return pro¬ teins, waste products, and fluids to the blood; molecules too big to enter the capillaries pass through the more permeable walls of lymphatic vessels. Valves keep lymph flowing in one direction, more slowly than blood and at a lower pressure. The lymphatic system also has a role in the immune system. Nodes filter bacteria and foreign matter from lymph. Smaller nodules, which often produce lymphocytes, form in areas more exposed to such mate¬ rials. They can merge and become permanent, as in the tonsils. Blockage of a lymph vessel may cause fluid to collect in the tissues, producing lymphe¬ dema (tissue swelling). Other lymphatic system disorders include lympho¬ cytic LEUKEMIAS and LYMPHOMA. See also RETICULOENDOTHELIAL SYSTEM.

lymphocyte Type of leukocyte fundamental to the immune system, regu¬ lating and participating in acquired immunity. Each has receptor mol¬ ecules on its surface that bind to a specific antigen. The two primary types, B cells and T cells, originate from stem cells in bone aaarrow and travel to lymphoid tissues. When a B cell binds to an antigen, it multiplies to form a clone of identical cells.

Some of these, acted on by helper T cells, differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibodies against the antigen. Others (memory cells) mul¬ tiply, providing long-term immunity to the antigen.

lymphoid tissue Cells, tissues, and organs composing the immune sys¬ tem, including the bone aaarrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. The most highly organized components are the thymus and lymph nodes, and the least organized are the cells that wander in the loose connective-tissue spaces under membranes lining most body systems, where they can estab¬ lish lymph nodules (local lymphocyte production centre) in response to antigens. The most common lymphoid tissue cell is the lymphocyte. Oth¬ ers are macrophages, which engulf foreign materials and probably alter them to initiate the immune response, and reticular cells, which produce and maintain thin networks of fibres as a framework for most lymphoid organs. See also immunity; lymphatic system.

lymphoma \lim-'fo-m9\ Any of a group of malignant diseases (see cancer) that usually start in the lymph nodes or lymphoid tissues. The two major types, Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, each have sev¬ eral subtypes. Diagnosis of either type requires biopsy, usually from the lymph nodes. Non-Hodgkin lymphomas may be diffuse (widespread) or nodular (concentrated in nodules); nodular lymphomas generally develop more slowly.

Lynch, David (b. Jan. 20, 1946, Missoula, Mont., U.S.) U.S. director. Trained as an artist, he studied in Europe and began experimenting with film in the late 1960s. In 1977 he made his first feature, Eraserhead, a grotesque and nightmarish film that became a cult favourite. He directed the critically acclaimed The Elephant Man (1980), the science-fiction Dune (1984), and the bizarre mystery Blue Velvet (1986). He was noted for his disturbing and dark view of life. His later films include Wild at Heart (1990, Golden Palm), Lost Highway (1997), The Straight Story (1999), and Mulholland Drive (2001). He also created the offbeat televi¬ sion series Twin Peaks (1990-91).

lynching Execution of a presumed offender by a mob without trial, under the pretense of administering justice. It sometimes involves tortur¬ ing the victim and mutilating the body. Lynching has often occurred under unsettled social conditions. The term derives from the name of Charles Lynch, a Virginian who headed an irregular court to persecute loyalists during the American Revolution. In the United States, lynching was widely used in the post-Reconstruction South against blacks, often to intimidate other blacks from exercising their civil rights.

Lynd Vlind\, Robert (Stoughton); and Lynd, Helen orig. Helen Merrell (respectively b. Sept. 26, 1892, New Albany, Ind., U.S.—d. Nov.

Charles Lyell, detail of a replica in oil by Lowes Cato Dickinson, 1883; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Human lymphocyte (phase-contrast microphotograph).

MANFRED KAGE-PETER ARNOLD

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1154 I Lynn ► Lysias

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1, 1970, Warren, Conn.; b. March 17, 1894, La Grange, Ill., U.S.—d. Jan. 30, 1982, Warren, Ohio) U.S. sociologists. The Lynds taught for several decades at Columbia University and Sarah Lawrence College, respectively. In their collaboration on the studies Middletown (1929) and Middletown in Transition (1937), classics of sociological literature as well as popular suc¬ cesses, they became the first scholars to apply the methods of cultural anthropology to the study of a modern Western city (Muncie, Ind.).

Lynn, Loretta orig. Loretta Webb (b. April 14, 1935, Butcher Hol¬ low, Ky., U.S.) U.S. country music singer. Born in a coalminer’s shack, Lynn married at age 13 and bore the first of six children the next year. In 1960 she released her first single, “Honky Tonk Girl,” which became a hit. In 1962 she joined the Grand Ole Opry, and by the mid-1960s hits such as “Don’t Come Home A-Drinkin’” made her one of country’s big¬ gest stars. In 1970 she released her signature song, “Coal Miner’s Daugh¬ ter”; it provided the title of a best-selling autobiography and a popular film (1980). Her half-sister, Crystal Gayle (b. 1951), also had a success¬ ful recording career.

Lynn Canal Deep fjord, southeastern Alaska, U.S. An important gateway to the Klondike region, it is 80 mi (129 km) long and 6 mi (10 km) wide. The northernmost fjord to penetrate the Coast Mountains, it was named in 1794 by Capt. George Vancouver for his birthplace, King’s Lynn, Eng.

lynx Any of three species of short-tailed forest cat (genus Lynx ) found in Europe, Asia, and northern North America. The North American lynx {Lynx canadensis) is regarded as distinct from the Eurasian and Spanish (Iberian) species. The lynx has long legs, large paws, tufted ears, hairy soles, and a broad, short head. Its coat, which forms a bushy ruff on the neck, is tawny to cream-coloured and mottled with brown and black. Its dense, soft winter fur has been used for trimming garments. Lynx are approximately 3CM10 in. (80-100 cm) long, without the 4-8-in. (10-20- cm) tail, and stand about 24 in. (60 cm) high at the shoulder. They weigh 20—45 lb (10-20 kg). Nocturnal and silent except during mating season, lynx live alone or in small groups. They climb and swim well and feed on birds, small mammals, and occasionally deer. Some regional popula¬ tions of lynx are considered endangered.

Lyon \'lyo n \ English Lyons Ylyo n , 'll-3nz\ City (pop., 1999: city, 445,452; metro, area, 1,348,932), east-central France. Located at the con¬ fluence of the Rhone and Saone rivers, it was founded as the Roman mili¬ tary colony Lugdunum in 43 bc (see Lorraine) and became a principal city of Gaul. It was incorporated in 1032 into the Holy Roman Empire and in 1312 into the kingdom of France. It flourished economically in the 15th century, and by the 17th century it was the silk-manufacturing centre of Europe. It was a centre of the French Resistance movement during World War II. A major river port, it has a diversified economy, including textile, metallurgical, and printing industries. Its many ancient buildings include a Roman theatre, a 12th-century Gothic cathedral, and a 15th-century palace.

Lyon, Councils of 13th and 14th ecumenical councils of the Roman Catholic Church. The First Council of Lyon was convened by Pope Inno¬ cent IV in 1245 after he fled to Lyon from the besieged city of Rome; the pope deposed the emperor, Frederick II, and urged support for Louis IX on the Seventh Crusade. At the Second Council in 1274, Pope Gregory X nominally reunited the Eastern and Western churches, but the Greek clergy soon repudiated the union.

Lyon, Mary (Mason) (b. Feb. 28, 1797, near Buckland, Mass., U.S.—d. March 5, 1849, South Hadley) U.S. pioneer in higher education for women. She studied at various academies, supporting herself from age 17 by teaching. Her success as a teacher and administrator, and the demand for the young women she had trained, led to her plan for a per¬ manent instructional institution for women. The school she founded in South Hadley, Mass., opened in 1837 as the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (the forerunner of Mount Holyoke College), and she served as its principal until her death.

lyre Stringed musical instrument consisting of a resonating body with two arms and a crossbar to which the strings extending from the resona¬ tor are attached. Lyrelike instruments existed in Sumer before 2000 bc. Greek lyres were of two types, the kithara and the lyra. The latter had a rounded body and a curved back—often a tortoiseshell—and a skin belly. It was the instrument of the amateur; professionals used the more elabo¬ rate kithara. In ancient Greece the lyre was an attribute of Apollo and symbolized wisdom and moderation. In medieval Europe new varieties of lyre emerged that, like the kithara, were box lyres, although their precise

relation to the lyres of Classical antiquity is not known. The lyres of modern East Africa probably reflect ancient diffusion of the instrument via Egypt.

lyrebird Either of two species of insectivorous suboscine passerines (family Menuridae) named for the shape of their extremely long tail when spread in courtship display.

Found in forests in southeastern Aus¬ tralia, lyrebirds are ground dwellers with chickenlike bodies. About 40 in. (1 m) in total length, the male superb lyrebird is the longest of the passerines. He displays in a small clearing, bringing his tail forward so that the beautiful white plumes form a canopy over his head and the lyre¬ like feathers stand out to the side. In this position, while prancing in rhythm, he sings far-carrying melo¬ dious notes interspersed with perfect mimicry of other creatures and even of mechanical sounds.

lyric Verse or poem that can, or supposedly can, be sung to musical accompaniment (in ancient times, usually a lyre) or that expresses intense personal emotion in a manner suggestive of a song. Lyric poetry expresses the thoughts and feelings of the poet and is sometimes contrasted with narrative poetry and verse drama, which relate events in the form of a story. The elegy, ode, and sonnet are important forms of lyric poetry.

Lysander Ul-'san-dorV (d. 395 bc, Haliartus, Boeotia) Spartan leader in the Peloponnesian War. In his first year as admiral he won the support of the Persian king Cyrus the Younger. He defeated the Athenian fleet at Notium (406), causing the dismissal of Alcibiades. In 405 he destroyed the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami; this action closed the grain route and starved the city into surrender. Lysander installed the Thirty Tyrants and made his friends governors of Athens’s former empire. He suffered a defeat when Sparta allowed the restoration of democracy in Athens (403). Having led an army of Sparta’s northern allies into Boeo¬ tia, he was killed while attacking Haliartus.

Lysenko Uo-'seq-koV Trofim (Denisovich) (b. 1898, Karlovka, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Nov.

20, 1976, Kiev, Ukraine, U.S.S.R.)

Soviet biologist and agronomist.

During the Soviet famines of the 1930s, he proposed techniques for the enhancement of crop yields, rejecting orthodox Mendelian genet¬ ics on the basis of unconfirmed experiments, and gained a large popular following. As director of the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ Insti¬ tute of Genetics (1940-65), he became the controversial “dictator” of Stalinist biology. Claiming, among other things, that wheat plants raised in the appropriate envi¬ ronment would produce seeds of rye, he promised greater, more rapid, and less costly increases in crop yields than other biologists believed pos¬ sible. Eventually his “grassland” sys¬ tem of crop rotation was abandoned in favour of cultivation with mineral fertilizers, and a hybrid-corn pro¬ gram based on the U.S. example was pursued. In 1964 Lysenko’s doc¬ trines were officially discredited, and intensive efforts were made toward reestablishing orthodox genetics in the Soviet Union.

Lysias \Ti-se-os\ (b. c. 445— d. c. 380 bc) Greek orator. He was a metic (resident foreigner) in Athens, and as such he was forbidden to speak as

East African bowl lyre; in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford

COURTESY OF THE Pin RIVERS MUSEUM, OXFORD

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

lysine ► lysosome I 1155

a Roman citizen; all his speeches were delivered by others. He and his brother were seized by the ruling oligarchy in 404 as disaffected aliens; his brother was killed but Lysias escaped. He ranks with Antiphon as a writer of clear, simple prose of great effectiveness, and his style became one model for Attic Greek prose. Many of his writings survive.

lysine \'ll-,sen\ One of the essential amino acids, present in many com¬ mon proteins. Its proportion in the proteins of some important food plants (including wheat and com) is so small that populations dependent on these grains as the sole source of dietary protein suffer from lysine deficiency, affecting growth in chil¬ dren and general well-being in adults. It is used in biochemical and nutritional research, in pharmaceuti¬ cals, in fortified foods, and as a nutri¬ tional supplement and feed additive.

Lysippus \ll-'si-p3s\ or Lysippos

(fl. 4th century bc, Sicyon, Greece)

Greek sculptor. He was famous for the new and slender proportions of his figures and for their lifelike naturalism. He reportedly made more than 1,500 works, most in bronze. None survive, but some copies may be reli¬ ably ascribed to him, including Apoxyomenos, a young athlete scraping oil from his skin. Another key work is the colossal Heracles at Sicyon. He made many portrait busts of Alexander the Great from boyhood on; it was said that Alexander would have no other sculptor portray him.

lysogeny Ml-'sa-jo-neX Type of life cycle that takes place in a bacte¬ riophage after it infects certain types of bacteria. The bacteriophage’s genome (entire collection of genes) enters the chromosome of the host bacterium and replicates together with it. No offspring viruses are pro¬ duced; instead, the infecting virus lies dormant within the host’s chro¬ mosome until the host is exposed to certain stimuli, such as ultraviolet light. At that point, the virus genome is removed from the host chromo¬ some and begins to multiply, forming new viruses. Finally, the bacterial host is destroyed (lysed), releasing virus particles into the environment to infect new bacterial cells.

lysosome \H-s3-,som\ Membrane-enclosed organelle found in all eukaryotic cells (see eukaryote) that is responsible for the cell’s digestion of macromolecules, old cell parts, and microorganisms. Lysosomes con¬ tain a wide variety of enzymes that break down macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides. Many of the products of lysosomal digestion, including amino acids and nucleotides, are recycled back to the cell for use in synthesizing new cellular components.

Apoxyomenos, Roman marble copy of Greek bronze by Lysippus, c. 310 bc; in the Vatican Museum, Rome.

ANDERSON—ALINARI FROM ART RESOURCE

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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

1156 I Ml6 rifle ► macadamia

L_

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Ml6 rifle or AR-15 Assault rifle adopted as a standard weapon by the U.S. Army in 1967. The M16, designed by Eugene M. Stoner in the 1950s for the ArmaLite Division of Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp., has both semiautomatic and automatic capabilities. It weighs less than 9 lbs (3.6 kg) when equipped with a 30-round magazine, is 39 in. (99 cm) long, and fires a high-velocity .223-inch (5.56-mm) round. It can be fitted with a 40-mm grenade launcher. The M4 is a compact carbine version of the Ml6. See also Springfield rifle; AK-47.

M31 See Andromeda Galaxy

Ma, Yo-Yo (b. Oct. 7, 1955, Paris, France) French-born U.S. cellist. Born to Chinese parents in France, he made his cello debut at age five. He attended the Juilliard School and then Harvard University. Praised for his extraor¬ dinary technique and rich tone, Ma per¬ formed and recorded the standard cello repertoire and received a large number of commissions from contemporary composers. He is known for his many recordings with the pianist Emanuel Ax (b.

1949), for his collaborations with an unusual range of other musicians and artists, and for his energetic work on behalf of music programs for young people and a variety of international causes. In 1998 he founded the Silk Road Project, an arts organization that explores the historical and current exchange of ideas between Asian and Western cultures.

Ma-fa-mu-ts'o See Mapam Yumco

Ma Yuan or Ma Yuan (b. c. 1160/65,

Qiantang, Zhejiang province—d. 1225)

Chinese landscape painter. Bom into a family of court painters, Ma Yuan began his career under the emperor Xiaozong, became daizhao (“painter- in-attendance”) under Emperor Guangzong, and received the highest honour, the Golden Belt, under Emperor Ningzong. Apart from these facts, little is known about Ma’s life. He occasionally painted flowers and figure subjects, but it was in landscape painting that his genius lay. He executed a number of large landscape screens, all of which are now lost. He also painted tall hanging scrolls depicting steep mountains with streams, waterfalls, and vigorously yet elegantly rendered pine trees. In many of his works, the mountains are pushed to one side, creating a “one comer” composition; between the distant mountains and the foreground rocks, where a scholar may be sitting, lies an expanse of empty space with a suggestion of mist or water. Ma’s style was popular with late Song paint¬ ers, and it is often difficult to distinguish his works from those of his fol¬ lowers. The romantic landscape style of Ma and his contemporary Xia Gui inspired a school of painting that came to be known as the Ma-Xia school, characterized by asymmetrical compositions with simplified ink tones and angular brushstrokes.