Britannica Concise 2005

chocolate Food prepared from ground roasted cacao beans. It is con¬ sumed as candy, used to make beverages, and added as a flavouring or coating for confections and baked products. It was introduced to Europe by Hernan Cortes following his visit in 1519 to the court of Montezuma

II. who served the conquistador a bit¬ ter cacao-bean drink, xocoatl. In making chocolate, the kernels of fer¬ mented and roasted cacao beans are ground into a paste called chocolate liquor, which may be hardened in molds to form baking (bitter) choco¬ late, pressed to reduce the cocoa but¬ ter (vegetable fat) content and then pulverized to make cocoa powder, or mixed with sugar and additional cocoa butter to make sweet (eating) chocolate. The addition of concen¬ trated milk to sweet chocolate pro¬ duces milk chocolate. White chocolate, made from cocoa butter, sugar, milk, and vanilla, contains no cocoa solids. Rich in carbohydrates and fat and containing small amounts of caffeine, chocolate is an excellent source of quick energy.

Choctaw North American Indian people living in Oklahoma, U.S. They speak a Muskogean language that is closely related to that of the Chick¬ asaw. The Choctaw once lived in what is now southeastern Mississippi. They were the most skillful of the southeastern farmers, usually having surplus produce to sell or trade. They fished, gathered nuts and wild fruits, hunted deer and bear, and planted com, beans, and pumpkins. Their prin¬ cipal religious ceremony was the Busk (Green Corn) festival, a first-fruits and new-fire rite celebrated at midsummer. In the 19th century, pressure by white cotton-growers forced them to cede five million acres, and most Choctaw were removed to Oklahoma. Some 87,300 individuals claimed sole Choctaw descent in the 2000 U.S. census.

Ch'oe Si-hydng Vchoe-’se-'yoqV (b. 1827, Korea—d. 1898, Seoul) Sec¬ ond leader of the Korean Tonghak (now Ch'ondogyo) religion. He orga¬ nized the underground network that spread the apocalyptic, antiforeign Tonghak sect following the execution of its founder, Ch’oe Che-u (1824- 64). He published the first two Tonghak scriptures in 1880 and 1881, add¬ ing public service to the founder’s principle of human equality and obligation to serve heaven. Preaching the need for Korea to become as strong as Western imperialist powers, in 1894 he led the Tonghak Upris¬ ing, which was viciously suppressed. He was arrested and executed in 1898, by which time Tonghak had spread throughout Korea.

choir Body of singers with more than one voice to a part. For many cen¬ turies, church choirs sang only plainsong (see Gregorian chant). The rela¬ tive complexity of early polyphony required solo voices rather than choral performance, but by the 15th century polyphony was being performed chorally. The growth of the secular choir (or chorus) coincided with the beginnings of opera. An oratorio choir is part of a different tradition, which stems from the augmented church choirs used to provide choral portions of a given oratorio, whether performed in or out of church.

Choiseul \shwa-'z3l\, Etienne-Francois de Choiseul, duke de

(b. June 28, 1719, Lorraine, France—d. May 8, 1785, Paris) French for¬ eign minister. He served with distinction in the War of the Austrian Suc¬ cession. After serving as ambassador to the Vatican (1753-57) and to the Austrian court, he was made a duke and named minister of foreign affairs (1758), in which position he came to dominate the government of Louis XV. In 1761 he concluded a military alliance with Spain (the “Family Compact”), and at the end of the Seven Years’ War he negotiated the best terms for a defeated France. He rebuilt France’s military strength but was dismissed from office in 1770 for advocating war against Britain.

chokecherry One of several varieties of shrub or small tree (.Prunus virginiana ) of the rose family, native to North America. Though it is aptly named for the astringent, acidic taste of its reddish cherries, its fruit may be made into jelly and preserves. The stones and wilted foliage are poi¬ sonous. The trees often form dense thickets on moist soils. They are fre¬ quently attacked and defoliated by eastern tent caterpillars. Foul-scented white flowers are produced in hanging spikes, and the slender brown twigs also have an unpleasant odour and a bitter taste.

cholera Vka-b-roX Acute bacterial infection with Vibrio cholerae, caus¬ ing massive diarrhea with severe depletion of body fluids and salts. (See bacterial disease.) Cholera often occurs in epidemics, spreading in con-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

398 I cholesterol ► chorale

taminated water or food. The bacteria secrete a toxin that causes the diar¬ rhea, which along with vomiting leads to dehydration, with severe muscle cramps and intense thirst. Stupor and coma may precede death by shock. With fluid and salt replacement, the disease passes in two to seven days, sooner if antibiotics are taken the first day. Prevention requires good sani¬ tation, especially clean drinking water.

cholesterol Waxy organic compound found in blood and all animal tis¬ sues. It is a steroid, with molecular formula C 27 H 46 0, containing four rings in its structure. Cholesterol is essential to life; it is a primary com¬ ponent of CELL membranes and a starting or intermediate material from which the body makes bile acids, other steroid hormones, and vitamin D. It is made in the liver and some other organs, in greater or lesser amounts depend¬ ing on the amount recently consumed in the diet. It circulates in the blood in compounds called lipoproteins, since it is not water-soluble alone. Excess cholesterol in the blood forms deposits in arteries (see arterioscle¬ rosis), which can lead to coronary heart disease. Michael Brown (born 1941) and Joseph Goldstein (bom 1940) won a Nobel Prize in 1985 for their work in discovering this process. Since the body makes cholesterol from FATS, blood cholesterol cannot be reduced by limiting only the amount of cholesterol in the diet; the amount of fat, especially saturated fat (see saturation, fatty acid) must also be reduced. See also triglyceride.

choline Vko-,len\ Organic compound related to vitamins in its activity. It is important in metabolism as a component of the lipids that make up cell membranes and of acetylcholine. It is also important as a source of chemi¬ cal raw materials for cells and in transport of fats from the liver. It is usu¬ ally classified with the B vitamins (see vitamin B complex) because it resembles them in function and in its distribution in foods. In humans it is interconvertible with certain other compounds, such as methionine, so deficiency does not lead to disease, but some other animals need it in their diet. Choline has various uses in medicine, nutrition, and the processing of foods and feeds.

cholla Ych6i-ya\ Any cactus of the genus Opuntia, native to North and South America, having needlelike spines partly enclosed in a papery sheath. Chollas vary greatly in size and have small flowers, sometimes chartreuse and inconspicuous, but usually of more striking colors. O. leptocaulis, the desert Christmas cac¬ tus, bears bright red fruits through the winter. Living plants serve as food for desert animals. Cholla wood, a hollow cylinder with regularly spaced holes, is used for fuel and novelties. Some cholla fruit is edible.

Chomsky, (Avram) Noam (b.

Dec. 7, 1928, Philadelphia, Pa.,

U.S.) U.S. linguist, philosopher, and political activist. He received a Ph.D. in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955, the same year he joined the faculty at the Massa¬ chusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Chomsky takes the proper object of study for linguistics to be the mentally represented grammars that con¬ stitute the native speaker’s knowledge of his language and the biologi¬ cally innate language faculty, or “universal grammar,” that enables the developmentally normal language learner, as a child, to construct a gram¬ mar of the language to which he is exposed. For Chomsky, the ultimate goal of linguistic science is to develop a theory of universal grammar that provides a descriptively adequate grammar for any natural language given only the kind of “primary linguistic data” available in the social environ¬ ments of children. This imperative has motivated the gradual refinement of Chomskyan linguistic theory from the early transformational grammar of the 1950s and ’60s to the Minimalist Program of the 1990s and beyond. A self-described libertarian socialist, Chomsky has written numerous books and lectured widely on what he considers the antidemocratic char¬ acter of American capitalism and its pernicious influence on the country’s politics and foreign policy, mass media, and academic and intellectual culture. See also generative grammar.

Ch'dndogyo Vchon-'do-'gyo \formerly Tonghak (Korean: "East¬ ern Learning") Korean "Religion of the Heavenly Way"

Korean religion combining elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, Dao- ism, shamanism, and Roman Catholicism. Its basic principle that “man and God are one” is realized through faith in the unity of one’s body and spirit and in the universality of God. Converts are instructed to meditate on God, pray upon leaving and entering home, dispel harmful thoughts, and worship God in church on Sundays. Ch’oe Che-u (1824-64) estab¬ lished the religion in 1860 after receiving inspiration from the Heavenly Emperor (Ch’ongju). His efforts at social change led to his execution. His successor, Ch'oe Si-hyong, was executed following the Tonghak Uprising. Today Ch’ondogyo has about three million adherents.

Chongqing or Ch'ung-ch'ing Vchurj-'chiqV conventional Chungk¬ ing \'ch3q-'kii]\ City and municipality with provincial status (pop., 2003 est.: city, 4,239,700; 2002 est.: municipality, 31,070,000), south-central China. The municipality is bordered by Sichuan, Shaanxi, Hubei, Hunan, and Guizhou provinces and has an area of 31,700 sq mi (82,000 sq km). The leading river port and industrial centre of the region, Chongqing (“Double-Blessed”) lies at the confluence of the Yangtze (Chang) and Jialing rivers. In the 11th century bc it was a feudal state under the Xi (Western) Zhou dynasty. Over the next several centuries its status alter¬ nated from being ruled by an empire in northern China to being an inde¬ pendent state. It finally came under Chinese rule in the Ming dynasty, continuing under the Qing dynasty. It was opened to foreign trade in 1890. It played a large role in the revolution of 1911. Once a city of narrow and irregular streets, Chongqing changed greatly as a result of a moderniza¬ tion program introduced during World War II, when it became the capital of Nationalist China. Since the war it has become an important industrial centre. It is home to Chongqing University (founded 1929).

Chons See Khons

Chopin \sho-'pa n ,\ English \ 'sh6-,pan\, Frederic (Francois) orig. Fryaeryk Franciszek Szopen

(b. March 1, 1810, Zelazowa Wola, near Warsaw, Duchy of Warsaw—d.

Oct. 17, 1849, Paris, France) Polish- French composer. Born to middle- class French parents in Poland, he published his first composition at age seven and began performing in aris¬ tocratic salons at eight. He moved to Paris in 1831, and his first Paris con¬ cert the next year thrust him into the realm of celebrity. Renowned as a piano teacher, he spent his time in the highest society. He contracted tuberculosis apparently in the 1830s.

In 1837 he began a 10-year liaison with the writer George Sand; she left him in 1847, and a rapid decline led to his death two years later. Chopin stands not only as Poland’s greatest composer but perhaps as the most significant composer in the history of the piano; he exhaustively exploited the instrument’s capacities for charm, excitement, variety, and timbral beauty. His innovations in fingering, his use of the pedals, and his gen¬ eral treatment of the keyboard were hightly influential. Apart from two piano concertos (both 1830) and four other works for piano and orches¬ tra, virtually all his compositions are for solo piano; they include some 60 mazurkas, 27 etudes, 26 preludes, 21 nocturnes, some 20 waltzes, 16 polonaises, 4 ballades, 4 scherzos, and 3 sonatas.

Chopin \sho-'pan\, Kate orig. Katherine O'Flaherty (b. Feb. 8, 1851, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. Aug. 22, 1904, St. Louis) U.S. writer. Chopin lived in Louisiana during her marriage and began to write after her husband’s death. A local colourist and interpreter of New Orleans cul¬ ture, she foreshadowed later feminist themes. Among her more than 100 short stories are “Desiree’s Baby” and “Madame Celestin’s Divorce.” The Awakening (1899), a realistic novel about the sexual and artistic awaken¬ ing of a young mother who abandons her family, initially was condemned for its sexual frankness but was later acclaimed.

chorale Metrical hymn tune associated in common English usage with the Lutheran church in Germany. From early in the Reformation, chorales were to be sung by the congregation during the Protestant liturgy. The

Jumping cholla [Opuntia bigelovii)

GRANT HEILMAN

Frederic Chopin, detail of a portrait by Eugene Delacroix; in the Louvre in Paris, France.

GIRAUDON/ART RESOURCE, NEW VORK

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

chord ► Christ I 399

words of the Lutheran chorales were often Latin plainsong hymn texts translated into the vernacular. The melodies were often borrowed from secular song and therefore displayed great melodic and structural simplic¬ ity. In modern times the chorale is considered to be a musical setting, usually polyphonic (multivoiced), of a traditional religious text.

chord Grouping of three or more musical tones, especially as sounded simultaneously. The tones C-E-G constitute a “C major chord,” or “C major triad.” Chords may comprise any number of separate tones, and may be highly dissonant (see consonance and dissonance). The term har¬ mony is often used loosely as a synonym.

chordate Vk6r-,dat\ Any member of the phylum Chordata, which includes the most highly evolved animals, the vertebrates, as well as the marine invertebrate cephalochordates (see amphioxus) and tunicates. All chordates, at some time in their life cycle, possess a dorsal supporting rod (notochord), gill slits, and a dorsal nerve cord. Unlike vertebrates, tuni¬ cates and cephalochordates lack any kind of brain or skeleton. Chordate bodies consist of a body wall encasing a gut, with a space between called the coelom. The body is usually long and bilaterally symmetrical, with the mouth and sense organs at the front end.

chorea \ko-'re-3\ Neurological disorder causing irregular, involuntary, purposeless movements. It is believed to be caused by degeneration of the basal ganglia in the cerebral cortex. Sydenham chorea (St. Vitus dance) is usually associated with rheumatic fever. It usually occurs between ages 5 and 15, more often in girls. Typical jerking movements, mostly in the extremities and face, may affect speech and swallowing and range from mild to incapacitating; attacks last several weeks and recur frequently. Senile chorea, a progressive disease resembling Sydenham chorea, usu¬ ally occurs late in life. Huntington chorea is rare, hereditary, and fatal. It usually begins between ages 35 and 50 and progresses to random, often violent, and eventually totally incapacitating spasms, absent only during sleep. Mental deterioration begins later, and death occurs in 10-20 years. There is no effective therapy. Children of those afflicted have a 50% chance of developing the illness.

choreography Art of creating and arranging dances. The word is derived from the Greek for “dance” and “write,” reflecting its early mean¬ ing as a written record of dances. By the 19th century the term was used mainly for the creation of dances, and the written record became known as dance notation. In the 16th century dance masters at the French court arranged their social dances into specific patterns. In the 17th century such dances became more complex and were performed as theatrical ballets by trained professionals. In the late 18th century Jean-Georges Noverre and Gasparo Angiouni introduced choreography that combined expressive mime and dance steps to produce the dramatic ballet. This was further developed in 19th-century Romantic ballets by Marius Petipa, Jules Perrot, and August Bournonville. Radical change in the 20th century began with choreographers of the Ballets Russes, including Michel Fokine and Leonide Massine, and continued with George Balanchine, Martha Graham, Freder¬ ick Ashton, Jerome Robbins, Merce Cunningham, and Twyla Tharp. See also Alvin Ailey; Agnes de Mille; Serge Lifar; Bronislava Nijinska; Salvatore Vigano.

chorus In theatre, a group of actors, singers, or dancers who perform as an ensemble to describe and comment on a play’s action. Choral perfor¬ mances, which originated in the singing of dithyrambs in honour of Dionysus, dominated Greek drama until the mid-5th century bc, when Aeschylus added a second actor and reduced the chorus from 50 to 12 per¬ formers. As the importance of individual actors increased, the chorus gradually disappeared. It was revived in modern plays such as Eugene O'Neill’s Mourning Becomes Electra (1931) and T.S. Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral (1935). Choruses of singers and dancers came to be fea¬ tured in musical comedies, especially in the 20th century, first as enter¬ tainment and later to help develop the plot.

Choshu Vcho-.shtU Japanese han (domain) that, along with the han of Satsuma, supported the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate (see Tokugawa period) and the creation of a new government headed by the emperor. With their superior familiarity with Western weapons, the Satsuma-Choshu alliance was able to defeat the shogunal forces, bring¬ ing the emperor to power in the Meiji Restoration of 1868.

Choson dynasty \'cho-,s6n\ or Yi dynasty (1392-1910) Last and longest-lived of Korea’s dynasties. Chinese cultural influences were intense in this period, when Neo-Confucianism was adopted as the ideol¬

ogy of the state and society. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Korea suffered invasions at the hands of the Japanese and Manchus. Many cultural assets were lost, and it took the country nearly a century to recover. At the end of the 19th century, foreign powers once again threat¬ ened Korea; it was annexed by Japan in 1910. During the Choson dynasty the Korean alphabetic script Hangul (see Korean language) was created, and the yangban, a new aristocracy, was established. See also Yi Song-gye.

Chott el-Hodna See Chott el-HoDNA Chou dynasty See Zhou dynasty Chou En-lai See Zhou Enlai Chou-kung See Zhougong

Chouteau \shu-'t6\, (Rene) Auguste (baptized Sept. 7, 1749, New Orelans—d. Feb. 24, 1829, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.) American fur trader and cofounder of St. Louis. He moved to Missouri Territory with his mother and Pierre Liguest (17247-78), with whom he later cofounded St. Louis in 1764. The two men built a prosperous fur trade, which Chouteau later expanded. By 1794 he had a monopoly on the trade with the Osage and helped finance most of the fur-trading companies in Louisiana Territory. He became the unofficial banker to the St. Louis community and its larg¬ est landowner.

chow chow or chow Breed of dog that shares with the shar-pei an unusual blue-black tongue. The chow chow originated in China and dates to the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220); it may be one of the oldest of all dog breeds. It is compact and has a large head and a thick coat that forms a dense ruff about the neck.

The coat is evenly coloured, either reddish brown, black, or blue-gray.

The adult stands about 18-20 in.

(46-51 cm) tall and weighs 45-70 lb (20-32 kg). The breed is usually loyal to owners but aloof with strangers. Chow chow

SALLY ANNE THOMPSON/EB INC.

Chretien \kra-'tyaii\, (Joseph- -

Jacques) Jean (b. Jan. 11, 1934, Shawinigan, Quebec, Can.) Canadian prime minister (1993-2003). The 18th of 19 children of a working-class family, Chretien studied law at Laval University and was called to the bar in Quebec in 1958. He served in the Canadian House of Commons (1963— 86) and held various posts in the administrations of Lester Pearson and Pierre Trudeau, including minister of finance (1977), the first French Cana¬ dian to hold the office. In 1986, after losing the leadership battle to suc¬ ceed Trudeau, he retired from parliament. Four years later he was reelected to the House of Commons and became leader of the Liberal Party of Canada. In 1993 the Liberals won a landslide victory, and Chretien became prime minister. Under his leadership the party was again victo¬ rious in 1997 and 2000. As prime minister, he oversaw in 1998 the pas¬ sage of the country’s first balanced budget since 1970, and he pursued progressive social reforms, drafting a law in 2003 that would recognize same-sex marriages. Chretien’s relationship with the U.S. was sometimes tense, and he refused to commit Canadian troops to the U.S.-led war against Iraq in 2003.

Chretien de Troyes \kra-'tya n -d9- , trwa\ (fl. 1165-80) French poet. Little is known of his life. He is the author of the five Arthurian romances Erec, Cliges, Lancelot , Yvain, and Perceval and possibly also of a non- Arthurian tale. Written in the vernacular, his romances were derived from the writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth and combine separate adventures into well-knit stories. They were imitated almost immediately by other French poets and were translated and adapted frequently as the romance continued to develop as a narrative form. See also Arthurian legend.

Christ, Church of Any of various conservative Protestant churches found mainly in the U.S. Each congregation is autonomous in govern¬ ment, with elders, deacons, and a minister or ministers; there is no national administrative organization. These churches originated in the early 19th century with the Disciples of Christ movement, which relied on the Bible as the only standard of Christian faith and worship. Controversies split the movement, and the Churches of Christ designated those congregations that opposed organized mission societies and the use of instrumental

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

400 I Christchurch ► Christian Social Union

music in worship. After their separation from the Disciples, the Churches of Christ continued to grow. Worship services consist of prayer, preach¬ ing, unaccompanied singing, and the Lord’s Supper.

Christchurch City (pop., 1999 est.: 324,200), South Island, New Zealand. Founded in 1850 as a model Church of England settlement, it was the last and most successful colonizing project inspired by Edward Gibbon Wakefield and his New Zealand Co. It is the country’s second larg¬ est city and an important industrial centre; its port is Lyttelton. Called the “Garden City of the Plains” for its numerous parks and gardens, it is home to the University of Canterbury, Christ’s College, and Lincoln University.

Christian II (b. July 1, 1481, Nyborg, Den.—d. Jan. 25, 1559, Kalund- borg) King of Denmark and Norway (1513-23) and of Sweden (1520- 23). He succeeded his father, John, as king of Denmark and Norway. In 1517 he invaded Sweden, defeating the forces of the Swedish regent, and was crowned Sweden’s king in 1520. However, he ordered a massacre of Swedish nobles (the Stockholm Bloodbath) that helped incite a success¬ ful Swedish war for independence, marking the end of the Kalmar Union in 1523. That year a revolt in Denmark forced Christian to flee to the Netherlands. After attempting to regain his kingdom, he was arrested by Danish forces in 1532 and spent the rest of his life imprisoned in Danish castles.

Christian III (b. Aug. 12, 1503, Gottorp, Schleswig—d. Jan. 1, 1559, Kolding, Den.) King of Denmark and Norway (1534-59). Son of King Frederick I, he assumed control of the kingdom after winning a civil war known as the Count’s War. He arrested the Catholic bishops who had opposed him and organized the Diet of Copenhagen (1536), which con¬ fiscated episcopal property and established the state Lutheran church. By forming close ties between the church and the crown, he laid the foun¬ dation for the absolutist Danish monarchy of the 17th century.

Christian IV (b. April 12, 1577, Frederiksborg Castle, Hillerpd, Den.—d. Feb. 28, 1648, Copen¬ hagen) King of Denmark and Nor¬ way (1588-1648). He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father,

Frederick II, but a regency ruled until 1596. After his coronation he succeeded in limiting the powers of the Rigsrad (state council). He led two unsuccessful wars against Swe¬ den and brought disaster to his coun¬ try by leading it into the Thirty Years'

War. He was eventually forced to accept the increased power of the nobility, which had long opposed his warlike policies. However, he ener¬ getically promoted trade and ship¬ ping, was a great builder and founder of cities, left a national heritage of fine buildings, and was considered one of the most popular of Danish kings.

Christian IX (b. April 8, 1818,

Gottorp, Schleswig—d. Jan. 29,

1906, Copenhagen, Den.) King of Denmark (1863-1906). He suc¬ ceeded the childless Frederick VII, whose cousin he had married. When he became king, he was forced by popular feeling to sign the November Constitution, which incorporated Schleswig into the state (see Schleswig- Holstein Question). This led to the disastrous war of 1864 against Prussia and Austria. After the war, he unsuccessfully resisted the advance of full parliamentary government in Denmark.

Christian X (b. Sept. 26, 1870, Charlottenlund, Den.—d. April 20, 1947, Copenhagen) King of Denmark (1912—47) who symbolized his nation’s resistance to the German occupation in World War II. He assumed the throne on the death of his father, Frederick VIII (1843-1912). In 1915 Christian signed a constitution granting equal suffrage to men and women. After the German occupation began in 1940, he rode frequently on horse¬ back through the streets of Copenhagen, showing that he had not aban¬ doned his claim to national sovereignty, and he opposed Nazi demands for anti-Jewish legislation. His speech against the occupation forces in 1943 led to his imprisonment until the end of the war.

Christian, Charlie orig. Charles Christian (b. July 29, 1916, Bon¬ ham, Texas, U.S.—d. March 2, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. guitarist. Christian grew up in Oklahoma City, Okla., and joined Benny Goodman to perform in both big-band and small-group settings in 1939. He created a sensation through his technically adept and innovative use of amplifi¬ cation, thus changing the guitar’s primary role from accompanist to solo¬ ist. He was the first great electric guitarist in jazz. As one of the most advanced and influential soloists of the swing era, Christian participated in the jam sessions at Minton’s Playhouse in Harlem with Thelonious Monk and Dizzy Gillespie that pioneered the harmonic advances of bebop.

Christian caste In India, social stratification among Christians based on caste membership at the time of an individual’s or an ancestor’s conver¬ sion. Indian Christians are grouped by denomination, geography, and caste. The Syrian Christians along the Malabar coast, descended from lst-century converts of high birth, retain mid-rank status in Hindu society. Portuguese missionaries of the 16th century converted lower-caste fisherfolk. Mission¬ aries in the 19th century insisted on social reform and tended to draw from the lowest classes. Caste distinctions are breaking down at about the same rate among contemporary Indian Christians and other Indians.

Christian Democracy Political movement that has a close associa¬ tion with Roman Catholicism and its philosophy of social and economic justice. It incorporates both traditional church and family values and pro¬ gressive values such as social welfare. After World War II, a number of Christian Democrat parties appeared in Europe, including the Italian Christian Democratic Party, the French Popular Republican Movement, and the most successful, the German Christian Democratic Union. The same period also saw the appearance of Christian Democrat parties in Latin America. Though most were small splinter groups, Christian Democrats eventually achieved power in Venezuela, El Salvador, and Chile.

Christian Democratic Party (Italy) See Italian Popular Party

Christian Democratic Union (CDU) German political party advo¬ cating a free-market economy, limited social-welfare programs, and close relations with the United States. The CDU was founded in 1945 by a diverse group of former Weimar Republic (1919-33) politicians, includ¬ ing activists in the old Roman Catholic Centre Party, liberal and conser¬ vative Protestants, workers, intellectuals, and segments of the middle class. It held power from the establishment of the West German republic in 1949 until 1969. It regained power in 1982 under Helmut Kohl, who remained chancellor until 1998. In 1990 Kohl oversaw the reunification of Germany. The party is a strong supporter of European integration. See also Konrad Adenauer; Christian Democracy.

Christian Science officially Church of Christ, Scientist Religious denomination founded in the U.S. in 1879 by Mary Baker Eddy. Like other Christian churches, Christian Science subscribes to an omnipotent God and the authority (but not inerrancy) of the Bible and takes the Crucifix¬ ion and Resurrection of Jesus as essential to human redemption. It departs from traditional Christianity in considering Jesus divine but not a deity and in regarding creation as wholly spiritual. Sin denies God’s sovereignty by claiming that life derives from matter. Spiritual cure of disease is a necessary element of redemption from the flesh and one of the church’s most controversial practices. Most members refuse medical help for dis¬ ease, and members engaged in the full-time healing ministry are called Christian Science practitioners. Elected readers lead Sunday services based on readings from the Bible and Eddy’s Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. At the end of the 20th century, the church had about 2,500 congregations in 70 countries; its headquarters is at the Mother Church in Boston. See also New Thought.

Christian Science Monitor, The Daily newspaper of national and international news and features, published Monday through Friday in Bos¬ ton under the auspices of the Church of Christ, Scientist (see Christian Science). Established in 1908 at the urging of Mary Baker Eddy as a pro¬ test against the sensationalism of the popular press, it became one of the most respected U.S. newspapers, famous for its thoughtful treatment of the news and for the quality of its assessments of political, social, and economic developments. It strictly limits the kinds of advertising it accepts. It maintains its own bureaus to gather news abroad and publishes a weekly world edition. The newspaper won its sixth Pulitzer Prize in 1996, in the category of international reporting.

Christian Social Union (CSU) Conservative German political party that was founded in Bavaria, West Germany, in 1946 by Roman Catholic

Christian IV, detail of an oil painting by Pieter Isaacsz, 1612; in Frederiksborg Castle, Denmark

COURTESY OF DET NATIONALHISTORISKE MUSEUM PA FREDERIKSBORG, DEN.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Christian socialism ► Christopher I 401

and Protestant groups. It was committed to free enterprise, federalism, and a united Europe that would operate under Christian principles. From 1946 it held the government of Bavaria continuously, except in 1954-57. In national elections it usually cooperated with the Christian Democratic Union.

Christian socialism Social and political movement originating in mid-19th-century Europe. Christian socialists attempted to combine the fundamental aims of socialism with the religious and ethical convictions of Christianity, promoting cooperation over competition as a means of helping the poor. The term was coined in Britain in 1848 after the failure of the reform movement known as Chartism. Christian socialism found followers in France and Germany, though the German group, led by Adolf Stoecker, combined its activities with violent anti-Semitism. Although the movement died out in the U.S. in the early 20th century, it retains an important following in Europe.

Christiania See Oslo

Christianity Religion stemming from the teachings of Jesus in the 1st century ad. Its sacred scripture is the Bible, particularly the New Testament. Its principal tenets are that Jesus is the Son of God (the second person of the Holy Trinity), that God’s love for the world is the essential component of his being, and that Jesus died to redeem humankind. Christianity was originally a movement of Jews who accepted Jesus as the Messiah, but the movement quickly became predominantly Gentile. The early church was shaped by St. Paul and other Christian missionaries and theologians; it was persecuted under the Roman Empire but supported by Constantine I, the first Christian emperor. In medieval and early modern Europe, Chris¬ tian thinkers such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Martin Luther contributed to the growth of Christian theology, and beginning in the 15th century missionaries spread the faith throughout much of the world. The major divisions of Christianity are Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Nearly all Christian churches have an ordained clergy, members of which are typically though not universally male. Members of the clergy lead group worship services and are viewed as intermedi¬ aries between the laity and the divine in some churches. Most Christian churches administer two sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist. In the early 21st century there were more than two billion adherents of Chris¬ tianity throughout the world, found on all continents.

Christie, Dame Agatha (Mary Clarissa) (b. Sept. 15, 1890, Torquay, Devon, Eng.—d. Jan. 12,

1976, Wallingford, Oxfordshire)

British detective novelist and play¬ wright. Her first novel, The Mysteri¬ ous Affair at Styles (1920), introduced Hercule Poirot, the eccentric Belgian detective who would appear in about 25 novels.

The elderly spinster Miss Jane Mar- pie, her other principal detective fig¬ ure, first appeared in Murder at the Vicarage (1930). Most of her approximately 75 novels, such as Murder on the Orient Express (1933; film, 1978), were best-sellers; trans¬ lated into 100 languages, they have sold more than 100 million copies. Her plays include The Mousetrap (1952), which set a world record for longest continuous run, and Witness for the Prosecution (1953; film, 1958). She was married to the eminent archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan

(1904-78).

Christie's Popular name for the London firm of Christie, Manson & Woods, the oldest fine-arts auctioneers in the world. It was founded by James Christie (1730-1803), who opened his salesrooms in 1766. He became friends with Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough, among others, and developed a tradition of holding studio sales for prominent artists. Christie’s has handled some of the most important art sales in his¬ tory, including the sale of paintings to Catherine II the Great of Russia. The firm, which became a public company in 1973, now has branches all over the world.

Christina Swedish Kristina (b. Dec. 8, 1626, Stockholm, Swed.—d. April 19, 1689, Rome) Queen of Sweden (1644-54). The successor to her father, Gustav II Adolf, she was a prime mover in concluding the Peace of Westphalia and ending the Thirty Years' War. After 10 years of rule, she

stunned Europe by abdicating the throne, claiming that she was ill and that the burden of ruling was too heavy for a woman. Her real reasons were her aversion to marriage and her secret conversion to Roman Catholicism, which was proscribed in Sweden. She moved to Rome and subsequently attempted, without success, to gain the crowns of Naples and Poland. One of the wittiest and most learned women of her age, she was a lavish patroness of the arts and an influence on European culture.

Christine de Pisan or Chris¬ tine de Pizan \kres-'ten-do-pe- 'za n \ (b. 1364, Venice—d. c. 1430)

French writer. She was the daughter of an astrologer to Charles V and the wife of a court secretary and took up writing to support her children when she was widowed, producing 10 vol¬ umes of graceful verse, including ballads, rondeaux, lays, and complaints, many in the courtly-love tradition. Some works, both poetry and prose, champion women, notably The Book of the City of Ladies (1405). She also wrote a life of Charles V and Le Ditie de Jehanne d’Arc (1429), inspired by Joan of Arc’s early victories.

Christmas Christian festival celebrated on December 25, commemo¬ rating the birth of Jesus. December 25 had already been identified by Sex¬ tus Julius Africanus in ad 221 as the day on which Christmas would be celebrated, and it was celebrated in Rome by ad 336. During the Middle Ages Christmas became extremely popular, and various liturgical cel¬ ebrations of the holiday were established. The practice of exchanging gifts had begun by the 15th century. The Yule log, cakes, and fir trees derive from German and Celtic customs. Christmas today is regarded as a fam¬ ily festival with gifts brought by Santa Claus (see St. Nicholas). As an increasingly secular festival, it has come to be celebrated by many non- Christians.

Christmas tree Evergreen tree, usually decorated with lights and orna¬ ments, to celebrate the Christmas season. The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands as symbols of eternal life was common among the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews. The Christian symbol can be traced to a German medieval play about Adam and Eve, which included the “paradise tree,” hung with apples. The modem, decorated version was widespread among German Lutherans by the 18th century. Brought to North America by German settlers in the 17th century, it had become widespread there by the mid-19th century. It was popularized in 19th- century England by Victoria’s consort, the German Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg.

Christo orig. Christo Javacheff (b. June 13, 1935, Gabrovo, Bulg.) Bulgarian-born U.S. environmental artist. After attending Sofia’s Fine Arts Academy, he moved to Paris in 1958, where he invented empaque- tage, the wrapping of objects in various materials as art. He began with cans and bottles, and eventually his projects expanded to buildings and landscapes. In 1964 he moved to New York City. He is noted for such monumental outdoor projects as Valley Curtain (1970-72) in Rifle Gap, Colo., and Running Fence (1972—76) in Marin and Sonoma counties, Calif. In 1995 he wrapped the Berlin Reichstag in metallic silver fabric. Though his displays, which are temporary and involve hundreds of work¬ ers, are controversial among environmentalists, they have been critically well received. Since 1961 most have been collaborative efforts with his wife, Jeanne-Claude (b. 1935).

Christopher, Saint (fl. 3rd century; Western feast day July 25; East¬ ern feast day May 9) Patron saint of travelers and motorists. He is said to have been martyred in Lycia under the Roman emperor Decius (c. 250). Legends depict him as a giant who devoted his life to carrying travelers across a river. One day a small child asked to be transported, and in the middle of the river the child became so heavy that Christopher staggered under the burden. The child revealed that the saint had been carrying Christ and the sins of the world, thus giving rise to Christopher’s name (Greek: “Christ-Bearer”). His historicity is doubtful.

Agatha Christie, 1946.

UPI/CORBIS-BETTMANN

Christina, engraving by Cornelis Viss- cher, 1650.

COURTESY OF THE SVENSKA PORTRATTARKIVET, STOCKHOLM

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

402 I Christus ► chronicle play

Christus Vkris-tiBsV Petrus (b. c. 1420, Baerle, Brabant—d. 1472/73, Bruges) Flemish painter. He is documented as working in Bruges (1444), where he was influenced by the work of Jan van Eyck. Christus is known for his sensitive portraits, but his most important contributions were the introduction of geometric perspective to Netherlandish painting, and his genrelike treatment of religious subjects, seen in works such as St. Eligius as a Goldsmith (1449) and Virgin and Child in a Domestic Interior (c.

1450-60).

chromaticism \kro-'ma-t9- l si-z9m\ In music, the use of all 12 tones, especially for heightened expressivity. A standard key or mode principally employs 7 tones, leaving 5 tones for discretionary use. Use of all 12 tones in a given piece increased in the 18th and 19th centuries. Strictly con¬ trolled chromaticism, as in the ornamentation of Frederic Chopin, did not threaten the perception of tonality. However, from the mid-19th century on, complaints were heard with ever greater frequency that it was difficult to perceive what a given piece’s tonal centre was, the chromaticism in the works of Richard Wagner being the most notorious. The virtual breakdown in tonality in the works of advanced composers led to the free atonality of Arnold Schoenberg and his followers in the early 20th century.

chromatography V.kro-mo-'ta-gro-feN Method first described in 1903 by Mikhail S. Tsvet for separating mixed chemical substances. Tsvet’s neglected work, rediscovered in the 1930s, uses the different affinities of substances in a solution in a mobile phase (a moving stream of gas or liq¬ uid) for adsorption onto a stationary phase (a fine-grained solid, a sheet of filtering material, or a thin film of a liquid on a solid surface). Choices of materials for these phases allow enormous versatility for separating substances including biological fluids (e.g., amino acids, steroids, carbo¬ hydrates, pigments), chemical mixtures, and forensic samples. In the origi¬ nal technique, an organic solvent flowed through a column of powdered alumina (see aluminum), sodium carbonate, or even powdered sugar to separate mixed plant pigments. Among current adaptations are paper chro¬ matography (PC), THIN-LAYER chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography (LC, including high-performance liquid chromatography, or HPLC), and gas chromatography (GC). Some remain laboratory techniques, but oth¬ ers (especially HPLC) can be used on an industrial scale. They require different methods for detecting and identifying the separated components, including colorimetry, spectrophotometry, mass spectrometry, and measure¬ ment of fluorescence, ionization potential, or thermal conductivity. A.J.P. Martin shared a 1952 Nobel Prize for developing LC and PC, and in his Nobel lecture announced the development (with his cowinner R.L.M. Synge and other colleagues) of GC.

chromite Relatively hard, metallic, black oxide mineral of chromium and iron (FeCr 2 0 4 ) that is the chief commercial source of chromium. Chromite is commonly found as brittle masses in peridotites, serpentines, and other basic igneous and metamorphic rocks. The principal producing areas are South Africa, Russia, Albania, the Philippines, Zimbabwe, Tur¬ key, Brazil, India, and Finland.

chromium Metallic chemical element, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Cr, atomic number 24. A hard, steel-gray metal that takes a high polish, it is used in alloys (e.g., ferrochromium, steel, stainless steel) to increase strength and corrosion resistance. It usually has valence 2, 3, or 6 and always occurs combined with other elements, especially oxygen; chromite is its only commercial source. Various coloured gem¬ stones (e.g., ruby, emerald, serpentine) owe their colour to chromium. Sodium chromate and dichromate are used in leather tanning, in metal surface treatment, and as catalysts. Chromium trioxide is used in chrome plating and as a colorant for ceramics. Chromium oxide, lead chromate, and various other chromium compounds are used as pigments. Chromium dioxide, strongly magnetic, is used in recording tapes and as a catalyst.

chromodynamics See quantum chromodynamics

chromosomal disorder Syndrome caused by chromosome abnormal¬ ity. Normally, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including one pair of sex chromosomes. Any variation from this pattern causes abnormalities. A chromosome may be duplicated (trisomy) or absent (monosomy); one or more extra full sets of chromosomes can be present (see ploidy); or part of a chromosome may be missing (deletion) or transferred to another (translocation). Resulting disorders include Down's syndrome, mental retardation, heart malformation, abnormal sexual development, malignan¬ cies, and sex-chromosome disorders (e.g., Turner's syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome). Chromosomal disorders occur in 0.5% of births; many can now be diagnosed before birth by amniocentesis.

chromosome Microscopic, threadlike part of a cell that carries heredi¬ tary information in the form of genes. The structure and location of chro¬ mosomes differentiate prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells (see prokaryote, eukaryote). Every species has a characteristic number of chro¬ mosomes; humans have 23 pairs (22 pairs of autosomal, or nonsex, chro¬ mosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes). Human chromosomes consist primarily of DNA. During cell division (see meiosis, mitosis), chro¬ mosomes are distributed evenly among daughter cells. In sexually repro¬ ducing organisms, the number of chromosomes in somatic (nonsex) cells is diploid, while gametes or sex cells (egg and sperm) produced by mei¬ osis are haploid (see ploidy). Fertilization restores the diploid set of chro¬ mosomes in the zygote.

duplicated

centromere

chromatin

dividing chromosome

chromatid

histones

DNA

nucleosome

During the first stages of cell division, the recognizable double-stranded chromo¬ some is formed by two tightly coiled DNA strands (chromatids) joined at a point called the centromere. During the middle stage of cell division, the centromere duplicates, and the chromatid pair separates. Following cell division, the separated chromatids uncoil; the loosely coiled DNA, wrapped around its associated proteins (histones) to form beaded structures called nucleosomes, is termed chromatin.

© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.

chromosphere Layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, several thousand miles thick, above the photosphere and below the corona. The chromosphere (literally “colour sphere”) is briefly visible as a thin ring, red from hydro¬ gen’s emission spectrum, during solar eclipses when the photosphere is obscured by the Moon. At other times it can be observed only with spe¬ cial instruments. Its temperatures range from about 7,000 °F (4,000 °C) about 700 mi (1,100 km) above the photosphere, increasing with altitude to several hundred thousand degrees. Solar flares and solar prominences are mainly chromospheric phenomena.

chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) Sudden debilitating fatigue of unknown cause. It may follow a nonspecific illness with mild fever, tender lymph nodes, sore throat, headaches, weakness, muscle and joint pain, and confusion or difficulty in concentrating. To meet the criteria of CFS, the syndrome must be new, with a definite point of onset, and must persist more than six months. Once dismissed as imaginary, CFS remains controversial. Many authorities question whether it is a distinct disorder, since there is considerable overlap with other conditions such as fibromyalgia and Gulf War syndrome. No diagnostic test for CFS exists. Although a number of theories about the cause of CFS have been advanced, none has been proved. No cure has been found, but most patients improve gradually.

chronicle play or history play Play with a theme from history that often holds up the past as a lesson for the present. Chronicle plays devel-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

chronometer ► Chuikov I 403

oped from medieval morality plays and flourished in times of nationalistic fervour, as in England from the 1580s to the 1630s. They included plays such as The Victories of Henry the Fifth and The True Tragedie of Rich¬ ard III and reached maturity with Christopher Marlowe’s Edward II and William Shakespeare’s Henry VI.

chronometer \kr9-'na-mo-t9r\ Mechanical timekeeping device of great accuracy, particularly one used for determining longitude (see latitude and longitude) at sea. Early weight- and pendulum-driven clocks were inac¬ curate because of friction and temperature changes and could not be used at sea because of the ship’s motion. In 1735 John Harrison invented and constructed the first of four practical marine timekeepers. The modern marine chronometer is suspended to remain horizontal whatever the incli¬ nation of the ship and differs in parts of its mechanism from the ordinary watch. A chronometer may provide timekeeping accurate to within 0.1 second per day. See also Ferdinand Berthoud.

Chrysander \kriE- , zan-d3r\ / (Karl Franz) Friedrich (b. July 8, 1826, Ltibtheen, Mecklenburg—d. Sept. 3, 1901, Hamburg) German musicologist. Trained as a schoolteacher, he soon became involved in music scholarship and published studies of folk song (1853). One of the founders of the discipline of musicology (with Philipp Spitta and Guido Adler), he wrote on a wide range of subjects, but his great project was the first edition of the complete works of George Frideric Handel, to which he devoted the years 1858-94.

chrysanthemum Ucri-'san-tho-.monA Any of the ornamental plants that make up the genus Chrysanthemum , in the composite family. The genus includes about 100 species native primarily to subtropical and temperate areas of the Old World. Cultivated species, often called mums, have large flower heads; those of wild species are much smaller. Most species have aromatic, alternate leaves. Some have both disk and ray flowers in the heads; others lack ray flowers. Costmary (C. balsamita ), pyrethrum, mar¬ guerite, Shasta daisy (hybrid forms of C. maximum ), florists’ chrysanthe¬ mum (C. morifolium), feverfew (C. parthenium ), com marigold (C. segetum), and TANSY are popular garden plants. Feverfew and pyrethrum are used in insecticides; feverfew and tansy were formerly used in medi¬ cines.

Chrysler Building Office building (1928-30) in New York City designed by William Van Alen (1883-1954). The epitome of sleek Art Deco design, its tapering sunburst-patterned stainless-steel spire remains a striking feature of the Manhattan skyline. Much of its futuristic auto¬ motive ornamentation was specified by its owner, Walter P. Chrysler (see Chrysler Corp.). It was briefly the tallest in the world (1,048 ft [319.4 m]) until the Empire State Building opened in 1931.

Chrysler Corp. Former U.S. automotive company first incorporated in 1925; now part of Daimler-Benz. It was founded by Walter P. Chrysler (1875-1940), who built it into the country’s second largest automobile manufacturer, noted for its Plymouth, Dodge, and Chrysler cars. In 1980 the corporation was rescued from the verge of bankruptcy by a government bailout organized by Lee Iacocca. In 1998 Chrysler Corp. merged with the German automaker Daimler-Benz to become Daimler Chrysler AG.

Chrysostom Vkris-os-tonA,

Saint John (b. 347, Antioch,

Syria—d. Sept. 14, 407, Comana,

Helenopontus; Western feast day September 13; Eastern feast day November 13) Early Church Father, biblical interpreter, and archbishop of Constantinople. He was raised as a Christian and lived as a hermit until his health gave way, after which he returned to Antioch and was ordained a priest. He earned a repu¬ tation as a great preacher (Chrysos¬ tom means “golden-mouthed”).

Against his wishes, he was appointed archbishop of Constantinople in 398.

He angered the wealthy with his con¬ cern for the poor and his criticisms of the misuse of riches. A synod con¬ vened in 403 by Theophilus of Alex¬ andria condemned him on 29 charges and banished him to Armenia. He

died en route to a more distant exile on the Black Sea. In 438 his relics were brought to Constantinople, and he was rehabilitated by the church.

chrysotile Vkri-so-.tllN Fibrous variety of the magnesium silicate min¬ eral serpentine; it is the most important asbestos mineral. Individual fibres are white and silky, but the aggregate in veins is usually green or yellow¬ ish. Chrysotile fibres have a high tensile strength, similar to that of other asbestos minerals (see amphibole asbestos). The largest deposits of chryso¬ tile are in Quebec and in the Ural Mountains.

Chu or Ch'u One of the states contending for power in China, 770-221 bc. Chu emerged in the 8th century bc in the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley, then not a part of China. It struggled with other states for supreme control over China in the 3rd century bc but lost out to Qin, which formed the first great Chinese empire.

Chu Hsi See Zhu Xi

Chu-ko Liang See Zhuge Liang

Chu Teh See Zhu De

Ch'u Yuan See Qu Yuan

Chu Yuan-chang See Hongwu emperor

Chuan Leekpai (b. July 28, 1938, Muang district, Trang province, Thai.) Prime minister of Thailand (1992-95, 1997-2001). Son of a school¬ teacher, he became a lawyer and was first elected a member of Parliament in 1969. He served in various capacities in the government and was first made prime minister in 1992 after his predecessor resigned in the wake of street violence brought on by Thailand’s worsening economic crisis. He lost elections in 1995 largely because his government was seen as plodding and slow, but he was returned to power in 1997; he stepped down in 2001 after his party had lost in national parliamentary elections. He was Thailand’s first prime minister to come to power without either aris¬ tocratic or military backing.

Chuang-tzu See Zhuangzi

chub Any of several freshwater fishes of the carp family that are com¬ monly caught for bait, sport, and food. Popular species include the European chub ( Leuciscus cephalus ) of Europe and Great Britain, a vora¬ cious predator of insects and other fish, and, in North America, the creek chub, or horned dace ( Semoti- lus atromaculatus ), and the homy- head chub ( Nocomis , or Hybopsis, biguttata). These species range in length from 6 to 24 in. (15-60 cm).

Their colours vary, tending toward bluish or greenish above with a lighter or silvery belly. The name is applied to many cyprinids in North America and to other, unrelated fishes elsewhere.

Chubut \chu-'but\ River River, southern Argentina. Rising in the Andes Mountains, it flows eastward across Chubut province 500 mi (800 km) before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean at Punta Castro. It is unnavigable, but its lower course irrigates the adjacent valley, which is agriculturally important.

Chughtai, Abdur Rahman (b. Sept. 21, 1894, Lahore, Pak.—d. Jan. 17, 1975, Lahore) Pakistani artist. In the 1920s he created large waterco¬ lours in a modified Bengal-school style. By the 1940s his painting style was influenced by Mughal architecture, Islamic calligraphy, miniature painting, and Art Nouveau, and his diverse subject matter included heroes and heroines from Islamic history, Mughal kings and queens, and episodes from Punjabi, Persian, and Indo-Islamic legends and folktales. After the partition of the subcontinent in 1947, he came to be known as the national artist of Pakistan.

Chuikov \'chu-i- 1 kof\ / Vasily (Ivanovich) (b. Feb. 12, 1900, Sere- bryannye Prudy, near Moscow, Russian Empire—d. March 18, 1982, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet general. He joined the Red Army at age 18. In World War II he commanded the defense at the Battle of Stal¬ ingrad, joined in turning Adolf Hitler’s armies back, and led the Soviet drive to Berlin. He personally accepted the German surrender of Berlin

St. John Chrysostom, detail of a 12th- century mosaic; in the Palatine Chapel, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.

ANDERSON-AUNARI FROM ART RESOURCE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

404 I chukar ► Churchill

in 1945. After the war he commanded the Soviet occupation forces in Germany (1949-53). He headed the Kiev military district (1953-60) and thereafter held a variety of military assignments in Moscow.

chukar Vcho-korN Popular small game bird (.Alectoris chukar ), a species of partridge. Stocked in many countries, it is native from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria. It has a brown back with strongly barred sides and a black-outlined whitish throat.

Chukchi See Siberian peoples

Chula Vista V.chii-lo-'vis-toX City (pop., 2000: 173,556), southwestern California, U.S. It lies on the eastern shore of San Diego Bay south of San Diego. Laid out in 1888 by the Santa Fe Railway and named for its “pretty view,” it developed as a citrus centre, later turned to truck gar¬ dening, and is now primarily residential.

Chulalongkorn VchU-'la-'loq-'koM or Phrachunlachomklao

\ I pra-chun- l la- l kom- , klau\ or Rama V (b. Sept. 30, 1853, Bangkok, Siam [Thailand]—d. Oct. 23, 1910,

Bangkok) King of Siam (r. 1868—

1910). He succeeded to the throne at 15 but did not assume his duties until he was 20. He enacted ambitious reforms patterned on Western mod¬ els, abolishing slavery, instituting the rule of impersonal law, and over¬ hauling his antiquated administra¬ tion. By persuading Western colonial powers that Siam was a modem state and playing their interests against one another, he kept Siam from being colonized for decades. How¬ ever, in 1907 Siam was forced to give up its rights in Laos and west¬ ern Cambodia to the French, and in 1909 it ceded four Malay states to Britain.

chum salmon or dog salmon

Lightly speckled North Pacific fish (Oncorhynchus keta) of the salmon family. The chum salmon ranges from the Mackenzie and Lena rivers in the southern Arctic southward to Japan and the Rogue River. Its weight averages about 10-12 lbs (4.5-5.5 kg). During the autumn spawning sea¬ son it swims more than 2,000 mi (3,200 km) up the Yukon River.

Ch'ung-ch'ing See Chongqing Chung Yung See Zhong yong Chungking See Chongqing

Chunqiu or Ch'un-ch'iu \'chun-'chyu\ (Chinese: “Spring and Autumn Annals”) First Chinese chronological history, the traditional history of Lu, as revised by Confucius. One of the Five Classics of Confucianism, it recounts events during the reign of 12 rulers of Lu from 722 bc to just before Confucius’s death in 479 bc. The Confucian Dong Zhongshu claimed that the natural phenomena recorded (e.g., drought, eclipse) were intended to warn future rulers of what happens when leaders prove unwor¬ thy. Since Confucian scholars were official interpreters of the classics, the book was a means for imposing Confucian ideals. The commentary called Zuo zhuan is significant.

church Building for Christian worship. The earliest Western churches were based on the plan of the Roman basilica. In Constantinople, Anato¬ lia, and Eastern Europe, the Orthodox church adopted the symmetrical Greek-cross plan, which had four wings of equal size projecting from a central, square, domed area (see Byzantine architecture). The late 11th cen¬ tury saw increased complexity in cathedrals, but the innovative hall church did not establish itself until the 14th century. The basilica and hall church dominated Western church design until the mid-20th century. Moderniza¬ tion of rituals and an innovative spirit have resulted in architectural experi¬ mentation that sometimes departs completely from traditional forms.

church In Christian doctrine, the religious community as a whole, or an organized body of believers adhering to one sect’s teachings. The word church translates the Greek ekklesia , used in the New Testament for the body of faithful and the local congregation. Christians established congre¬

gations modeled on the synagogue and a system of governance centred on the bishop. The Nicene Creed characterized the church as one (unified), holy (created by the Holy Spirit), catholic (universal), and apostolic (historically continuous with the Apostles). The schism of Eastern and Western churches (1054) and the Reformation (16th century) ended institutional unity and universality. St. Augustine stated that the real church is known only to God, and Martin Luther held that the true church had members in many Christian bodies and was independent of any organization.

Church, Alonzo (b. June 14, 1903, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. Aug. 11, 1995, Hudson, Ohio) U.S. mathematician. He earned a Ph.D. from Princeton University. His contributions to number theory and the theories of algorithms and computability laid the foundations of computer science. The rule known as Church’s theorem or Church’s thesis (proposed inde¬ pendently by Alan M. Turing) states that only recursive functions can be calculated mechanically and implies that arithmetic procedures cannot be used to decide the consistency of statements formulated in accordance with the laws of arithmetic. He wrote the standard textbook Introduction to Mathematical Logic (1956) and helped found the Journal of Symbolic Logic, which he edited until 1979.

Church, Frederic Edwin (b. May 4, 1826, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. April 7, 1900, near New York, N.Y.) U.S. landscape painter. He studied with Thomas Cole in Catskill, N.Y., and soon became one of the most prominent members of the Hudson River school. He traveled widely, seek¬ ing out spectacular scenery and marvels of nature such as Niagara Falls, volcanoes, icebergs, and the tropical forests of South America, and he achieved fame and success at home and in Europe. His house, Olana, on the Hudson River, is now a museum.

church and state Relationship between religious and secular author¬ ity in society. In most ancient civilizations the separation of religious and political orders was not clearly defined. With the advent of Christianity, the idea of two separate orders emerged, based on Jesus’s command to “Render unto Caesar what are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s” (Mark 12:17). The close association of religion and politics, how¬ ever, continued even after the triumph of Christianity as emperors such as Constantine exercised authority over both church and state. In the early Middle Ages secular rulers claimed to rule by the grace of God, and later in the Middle Ages popes and emperors competed for universal domin¬ ion. During the Investiture Controversy the church clearly defined separate and distinct religious and secular orders, even though it laid the founda¬ tion for the so-called papal monarchy. The Reformation greatly under¬ mined papal authority, and the pendulum swung toward the state, with many monarchs claiming to rule church and state by divine right. The concept of secular government, as evinced in the U.S. and postrevolu¬ tionary France, was influenced by Enlightenment thinkers. In western Europe today all states protect freedom of worship and maintain a dis¬ tinction between civil and religious authority. The legal systems of some modern Islamic countries are based on SHARfAH. In the U.S. the separa¬ tion of church and state has been tested in the arena of public education by controversies over issues such as school prayer, public funding of parochial schools, and the teaching of creationism.

church mode In music, any one of eight scalar modes employed for medieval liturgical melodies. The modal system was conceived for the purpose of codifying plainchant (see Gregorian chant); the names of the modes were borrowed from the system used by the ancient Greeks, though the Greek system was inadequately understood and the connection between the two is illusory. The modes are distinguished according to the note used as the final (last note) and the emphasis placed on another note, called the dominant. The Dorian mode’s final is D, the Phrygian mode’s is E, the Lydian mode’s is F, and the Mixolydian’s is G. Each of these four original modes had a parallel mode (Hypodorian, Hypophrygian, Hypoly- dian, and Hypomixolydian) with a lower range. Though they principally employ the tones A-B-C-D-E-F-G, some replace B with B-flat. In the 16th century, further modes were identified—the Aeolian, on A, and the Ionian, on C (corresponding to modern minor and major). The mode on B was ignored because of B’s problematic tonal relationship within the scale.

Church of Christ See Church of Christ Church of England See Church of England

Churchill, Randolph (Henry Spencer), Lord (b. Feb. 13, 1849, Blenheim Palace, near Woodstock, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 24, 1895, London) British politician. Third son of the 7th duke of Marlborough, he

Chulalongkorn

BBC HULTON PICTURE LIBRARY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Churchill ► cicada I 405

entered the House of Commons in 1874. In the early 1880s he joined other Conservatives in forming the Fourth Party, which advocated a “Tory democracy” of progressive conservatism. In 1886, at age 37, he became leader of the House of Commons and chancellor of the Exchequer, but he resigned after his first budget was rejected. Though he had seemed destined to be prime minister, this miscalculation effectively ended his political career. He remained in the Commons until his death, but he lost interest in politics and devoted much time to horse racing. Winston Churchill was his son.

Churchill, Sir Winston (Leonard Spencer) (b. Nov. 30, 1874, Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 24, 1965, London) British statesman and author. Son of Lord Randolph Churchill and the American Jennie Jerome, he had an unhappy childhood and was an unpromising student. After joining the 4th Hussars in 1895, he saw service as both a soldier and a journalist, and his dispatches from India and South Africa attracted wide attention. Fame as a military hero helped him win election to the House of Commons in 1900. He quickly rose to prominence and served in several cabinet posts, including first lord of the Admiralty (1911-15), though in World War I and during the following decade he acquired a reputation for erratic judgment. In the years before World War II, his warnings of the threat posed by Adolf Hitler’s Germany were repeat¬ edly ignored. When war broke out, he was appointed to his old post as head of the Admiralty. After Neville Chamberlain resigned, Churchill headed a coalition government as prime minister (1940^15). He commit¬ ted himself and the nation to an all-out war until victory was achieved, and his great eloquence, energy, and indomitable fortitude made him an inspiration to his countrymen, especially in the Battle of Britain. With Franklin Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin, he shaped Allied strategy through the Atlantic Charter and at the Cairo, Casablanca, and Tehran conferences. Though he was the architect of victory, his government was defeated in the 1945 elections. After the war he alerted the West to the expansionist threat of the Soviet Union. He led the Conservative Party back into power in 1951 and remained prime minister until 1955, when ill health forced his resignation. For his many writings, including The Second World War (6 vol., 1948-53) he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953; his later works include his History of the English-Speaking Peoples (4 vol., 1956-58). He was knighted in 1953; he later refused the offer of a peerage. He was made an honorary U.S. citizen in 1963. In his late years he attained heroic status as one of the titans of the 20th century.

Churchill Fall s formerly Grand Falls Part of a series of cataracts and rapids on the Churchill River, Newfoundland, Canada. The falls drop 245 ft (75 m) and are 200 ft (60 m) wide. They power one of Canada’s largest hydroelectric stations. Visited in 1839 by John McLean of the Hudson's Bay Company, the cataracts were called Grand Falls until 1965, when both falls and river were renamed for Winston Churchill, who died that year.

Churchill River River, central Canada. Rising in north-central Saskatchewan, it flows east across Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba and turns northeast into Hudson Bay at Churchill. About 1,000 mi (1,609 km) long, it passes through several lakes, including Churchill Lake (213 sq mi [552 sq km]) in Saskatchewan and Granville Lake in Manitoba.

churinga See tjurunga

Churrigueresque \,chur-i-g3-'resk\ Spanish Rococo architectural style named after the architect Jose Churriguera (1665-1725). Visually frenetic, it featured a plethora of extravagant ornament and surfaces bris¬ tling with broken pediments, undulating cornices, spirals, balustrades, stucco shells, and garlands. In Spanish America, tendencies from both Native American and Mudejar (Spanish-Moorish) art were incorporated, and the Churrigueresque column, an inverted cone, became the most com¬ mon motif.

ChQzenji \chu-'zen-je. Lake Lake, east-central Honshu, Japan. Situ¬ ated at an elevation of 4,163 ft (1,269 m), it is a resort site noted for its shrines, yachting, trout fishing, and skiing. Volcanic Mount Nantai tow¬ ers to 8,169 ft (2,490 m) above the lake’s northern shore; lower moun¬ tains surround most of the irregular 13-mi (21-km) shoreline.

chyme Vklm\ Thick semifluid mass of partly digested food and secre¬ tions, formed in the stomach and intestines during digestion. Its compo¬ sition changes as various digestive juices and cellular debris and other waste products are added, and water and nutrients are absorbed from it during its passage through the digestive tract, at the end of which it is stored for excretion.

CIA See Central Intelligence Agency

Ciano Vcha-no\, Galeazzo, count di Cortellazzo (b. March 18, 1903, Livorno, Italy—d. Jan. 11, 1944, Verona) Italian politician. He took part in the fascists’ March on Rome and later entered the diplomatic corps. After marrying Benito Mussolini’s daughter Edda in 1930, he became min¬ ister of foreign affairs (1936) and initiated the Rome-Berlin Axis that helped bring Italy into World War II. After several Axis defeats in 1942, he advocated a separate peace with the Allies. Mussolini dismissed his cabinet (1943), but Ciano and other leading fascists forced Mussolini’s resignation. Later, on Mussolini’s orders, Ciano was tried for treason and executed.

Ciaran of Clonmacnoise \ , kir-9n... 1 klan-mok- , n6iz\, Saint or Kie- ran the Younger (b. c. 516, Ireland—d. c. 549, Clonmacnoise; feast day September 9) Irish abbot, one of the founders of monasticism in Ire¬ land. Ciaran was educated with St. Columba at the monastery of Clonard and then lived on the island of Aranmore as a disciple of St. Enda. He traveled to central Ireland and settled with eight companions at Clonmac¬ noise, where he founded an abbey (548) that later won renown as a cen¬ ter of medieval learning. Ciaran’s abbey was so influential that more than half the monasteries in Ireland followed its severely ascetic rule. There is an annual pilgrimage to Clonmacnoise on his feast day.

Ciba-Geigy AG \,se-b3-'gl-ge\ Former Swiss pharmaceutical company formed in 1970 from the merger of Ciba AG and J.R. Geigy SA. Ciba started out in the 1850s as a silk-dyeing business and branched out into pharmaceuticals in 1900, by which time it was the largest chemical com¬ pany in Switzerland. J.R. Geigy dates to 1758, when Johann Rudolf Geigy set up a chemist’s shop in Basel. The company soon began manufactur¬ ing dyes for the textile industry. It entered the pharmaceutical market in the 1930s. The name was shortened to Ciba in 1992, and in 1996 Ciba’s merger with the Swiss company Sandoz formed Novartis AG, one of the world’s largest pharmaceutical companies.

Cibber \'sib-9r\, Colley (b. Nov. 6, 1671, London, Eng.—d. Dec. 11, 1757, London) British actor-manager, playwright, and poet. He began his career as an actor in 1690. His Love’s Last Shift (1696) is considered the first sentimental comedy. Cibber and two other actor-managers coman¬ aged the Drury Lane Theatre (1710-33). He was appointed poet aureate in 1730. His autobiography, An Apology for the Life of Mr. Colley Cibber (1740), contains the best account of the theatre of his day. Tactless, rude, and supremely self-confident, he was the target of many personal and political attacks; Alexander Pope mocked him as king of the dunces in his satirical poem The Dunciad. See also actor-manager system.

Cibola Vse-bo-laV Seven Cities of Legendary cities of splendour and riches sought by Spanish coNQUiSTADORes in North America during the 16th century. The cities were first reported by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, who was shipwrecked off Florida in 1528 and who wandered through what later became Texas and northern Mexico before his rescue in 1536. Expe¬ ditions sent to search for the cities were unsuccessful; one led by Fran¬ cisco Vazquez de Coronado in 1540 located a group of Zuni pueblos but failed to find vast treasures.

Ciboney \si-'bo-na\ Extinct group of Indian people who inhabited the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. By the time the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, they had been driven by their more powerful Taino neighbours to a few isolated loca¬ tions in what are now Cuba and Haiti. They lived in settlements of one or two families and apparently subsisted largely on seafood. The tool technology of the Cuban Ciboney was based on shell, that of the Haitian Ciboney on stone. Within a century of the first European con¬ tact, the Ciboney were extinct.

cicada \so-'ka-d9\ Any insect in the order Homoptera that has two pairs of membranous wings, prominent compound eyes, and three simple eyes (ocelli). Most of the 1,500

Newly emerged adult cicada (Tibicen pruinosa).

RICHARD PARKER

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l ' V

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

406 I Cicero ► Cimarron

known species are in the family Cicadidae and are found in tropical deserts, grasslands, and forests. Males produce loud noises by vibrating membranes near the base of the abdomen. Most North American cicadas produce rhythmical ticks, buzzes, or whines, though the “song” of some species is musical. The species are easily distinguishable by song, behav¬ iour, and appearance. Periodic cicadas (species that occur in large num¬ bers in chronologically and geographically isolated broods) appear in regular cycles, including the well-known 17-year cicada (often errone¬ ously called the 17-year locust) and 13 -year cicada. The larvae (nymphs) burrow into the ground, where they remain for 17 or 13 years, feeding on juices sucked from roots; they then emerge in large numbers to live aboveground as adults for a single week.

Cicero Vsi-sa-.roV, Marcus Tullius (b. 106 bc, Arpinum, Latium—d. Dec. 7, 43 bc, Formiae) Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer. Born to a wealthy family, he quickly established a brilliant career in law and plunged into politics, then rife with factionalism and conspiracy. Cicero was elected consul in 63 bc. Of his speeches, perhaps the best known are those he made against Catiline, whose uprising he foiled. He vainly tried to uphold republican principles in the civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic. After the death of Julius Caesar, he delivered his 14 Philippic orations against Mark Antony. When the triumvirate of Antony, Octavian (later Augustus), and Marcus Lepidus was formed, he was executed. His extant works include 58 orations and more than 900 letters, as well as many poems, philosophical and political treatises, and books of rhetoric. He is remembered as the greatest Roman orator and the inno¬ vator of what became known as Ciceronian rhetoric, which remained the foremost rhetorical model for many centuries.

cichlid \'si-klod\ Any of more than 600 primarily freshwater fish species (family Cichlidae), including many popular aquarium species. Cichlids are found in the New World tropics, Africa and Madagascar, and southern Asia. Most species are African, appearing in great diversity in the major African lakes. Cichlids are deep-bodied and have a rounded tail. They usu¬ ally grow no longer than about 12 in. (30 cm). Species may be omnivores, herbivores, or carnivores. Cichlids are noted for their complex mating and breeding behavior. Certain species (e.g., tilapia), known as mouthbreeders, carry their eggs in the mouth until hatched. See also angelfish.

Cid \'sid\, the Spanish El Cid orig. Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (b. c.

1043, Vivar, near Burgos, Castile—d. July 10, 1099, Valencia) Castilian military leader and national hero. His popular name, El Cid (from Span¬ ish Arabic al-sid, “lord”), dates from his lifetime. Brought up at the court of Ferdinand I, the Cid served the king’s eldest son, Sancho II, in his campaign to gain control of Leon. On Sancho’s death he shifted to the service of Alfonso VI, whom he had formerly opposed. His unauthorized raid on the Moorish kingdom of Toledo (1081) prompted Alfonso to send him into exile. He then entered the service of the Muslim rulers of Zara¬ goza, becoming known as a general who was never defeated in battle. Alfonso tried unsuccessfully to win him back during the Almoravid inva¬ sion of Spain. The Cid maneuvered to gain control of the Moorish king¬ dom of Valencia, finally succeeding in 1094. He was speedily elevated to the status of national hero, and his exploits were celebrated in a heroic biography and a famous 12th-century epic poem.

cider Expressed juice of apples. Apples are ground to a fine pulp and then pressed. Hard (alcoholic) cider is fermented in vats for up to three months before being filtered and aged (see fermentation). Sweet cider is unfer¬ mented and either drunk fresh (as in the U.S.) or mellowed in pressurized tanks first (particularly in Europe). Most cider in the U.S. is now pas¬ teurized. Juice that is pasteurized, treated with a preservative, and often clarified before being hermetically sealed in cans or bottles is marketed as apple juice.

cientifico \se-en-'te-fi-ko\ Spanish "scientist" Member of a group of officials who served in the government of Porfirio Diaz (1877-80, 1 884— 1911) in Mexico. Influenced by positivism and rejecting metaphysics, the¬ ology, and idealism as inadequate to solve Mexico’s problems, they advocated applying what they considered to be the scientific methods of the social sciences to the problems of finance, education, and industrial¬ ization. They had little influence on Diaz, but the movement took root in other parts of Latin America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

cigar Cylindrical roll of tobacco for smoking, consisting of cut tobacco filler formed in a binder leaf and with a wrapper leaf rolled spirally around the bunch. Wrapper leaf, the most expensive leaf used in cigars, must be strong, elastic, silky in texture, and even in colour; it must have a pleas¬

ant flavour and good burning properties. Cigars are bigger than cigarettes, and the odour and smoke they produce are stronger. Cigars were being smoked by Maya Indians by the 10th century; they were reported back to Spain by Christopher Columbus and other explorers and became popu¬ lar there long before they spread to other European countries.

cigarette Paper-wrapped roll of finely cut tobacco for smoking. Ciga¬ rette tobacco is usually milder than cigar tobacco. The Aztecs and other New World peoples smoked tobacco in hollow reeds, in canes, or wrapped in leaves, but it was in pipes and as cigars (cut tobacco wrapped in a tobacco leaf) that the Europeans first smoked tobacco. Early in the 16th century beggars in Sevilla, Spain, began picking up discarded cigar butts and wrapping them in scraps of paper to smoke, creating the first Euro¬ pean cigarettes. In the late 18th century cigarettes acquired respectabil¬ ity, and in the 19th century their use spread throughout Europe. After World War I smoking cigarettes became generally respectable for women and consequently increased markedly. In the 1950s and ’60s the health hazards associated with smoking (including lung cancer and heart disease) became widely known, and some countries launched campaigns against smoking. Declines in smoking in those countries have been offset by vastly increased numbers of smokers in developing nations.

cilantro See coriander

Cilicia \s3-Ti-sho\ Ancient district, southern Anatolia. The district was located along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea south of the Taurus Mountains. In ancient times it comprised the only land route from Ana¬ tolia to Syria, making it a prized territory. Controlled by the Hittites (14th—13th century bc), the Assyrians (8th century), and the Persian Achaemenids (6th—4th century), it later came under Macedonian and Seleucid rule. In the 1st century bc it became a Roman province (see Roman Republic and Empire). The apostle Paul visited the district, which has early Christian monuments. Muslim Arabs occupied it (7th-10th century ad), at the end of which time it was reconquered by Byzantine Empire. It was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire in 1515 and after 1921 became part of the Republic of Turkey.

Cilician Gates See Taurus Mtns.

cilium Vsi-le-smV Short, eyelashlike filament that is numerous on tissue cells of most animals. Capable of beating in unison, cilia perform a vari¬ ety of functions, including providing the means of locomotion for some protozoans, moving mammalian ova (eggs) through oviducts, generating water currents to carry food and oxygen past the gills of clams, and clean¬ ing debris from mammalian respiratory systems. Like a flagellum, a cil¬ ium has a central core consisting of two central microtubules surrounded by an outer ring of nine double fibres. Ciliary outgrowth is controlled by the basal body, located just inside the cell surface at the base of the cil¬ ium. Beneath the surface of some cells is a network of microtubular bundles that may coordinate ciliary beating.

Cimabue \,che-m3-'bu-a\ orig. Benciviene di Pepo (b. before 1251—d. 1302) Florentine painter and mosaicist. He is documented as a master painter in Rome in 1272. It is assumed that he was apprenticed to an Italo-Byzantine painter, since he was strongly influenced by the Greek Byzantine style. Though a number of works are attributed to him, the only one dated is the mosaic of St. John the Evangelist (1301-02) in Pisa Cathedral. He was the outstanding master of his generation and began the movement toward greater realism that culminated in the Renaissance. His style influenced Giotto and Duccio. Cimabue’s character may be reflected in his name, which can best be translated as “bullheaded.”

Cimarosa \,che-ma-'r6-za\, Domenico (b. Dec. 17, 1749, Aversa, Kingdom of Naples—d. Jan. 11,1801, Venice) Italian opera composer. Son of a stonemason, he studied at the Naples Conservatory. His first opera was produced in 1772, and by the mid-1780s he was internationally known. A short engagement as kapellmeister at the Viennese court resulted in the famous comic opera II matrimonio segreto (1792). In 1796 he became organist in the royal chapel of Naples. He wrote some 75 operas, remark¬ able for their apt characterizations and abundant comic life. He wrote many choral works, including the cantata II maestro di cappella, a popular satire on contemporary operatic rehearsal methods. Among his instrumental works, which, like his operas, have been successfully revived, are many sparkling harpsichord sonatas and a concerto for two flutes.

Cimarron Vsi-mo-.ron, , si-m9-,ran\ River River, southwestern U.S. Rising in northeastern New Mexico, it flows 698 mi (1,123 km) to enter the Arkansas River near Tulsa, Okla. Traversing the northern Oklahoma

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cimmerian ► circadian rhythm I 407

Panhandle, southeastern Colorado, and southwestern Kansas, the river¬ bed in this area is often dry and is known as the Dry Cimarron. The Santa Fe Trail coursed along its valley for 100 mi (160 km), and travelers knew the Oklahoma Panhandle as the “Cimarron Cutoff.”

Cimmerian \s3-'mir-e-9n\ Any member of an ancient people living north of the Caucasus and the Sea of Azov. Their origins are obscure; lin¬ guistically they are usually regarded as Thracian or Iranian. Driven by the Scythians out of southern Russia and over the Caucasus, they entered Ana¬ tolia toward the end of the 8th century bc. In 696-695 bc they conquered Phrygia. They reached the summit of their power in 652 after taking Sar¬ dis, capital of Lydia. Their decline soon began, and their final defeat may be dated from 637 or 626, when they were routed by Alyattes of Lydia.

Cimon YsI-monV (b. c. 510—d. c. 451 bc, Cyprus) Athenian statesman and general. He was the son of Miltiades. A conservative, he promoted Sparta and opposed Pericles. After helping defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis (480), he was elected strategus every year until 461. As com¬ mander of the Delian League, he cleared the Persians from the eastern Mediterranean and helped to lay the groundwork for the Athenian empire. In 461 he was accused by Pericles of collaborating with Macedonia and Sparta and was exiled for 10 years. He died leading a naval expedition against Persia.

cinchona Vsiq-'ko-ns, sin-'ch6-no\ Any of about 40 species, mostly trees, that make up the genus Cinchona in the madder family. Cinchona is native to the Andes Mountains. Four species have been cultivated in tropical regions for hundreds of years, mostly in Java and, since World War II, in Africa. The bark is processed to obtain various alkaloids. The most significant are quinine, used to treat malaria, and quinidine, used mainly for cardiac rhyth¬ mic disorders. High demand for quinine among Europeans living in the tropics led naturalists to smuggle cinchona seeds from South America to plantations in Asia in the mid 1800s and to conduct intensive research lead¬ ing to new high-yield strains and improved processing methods.

Cincinnati City (pop., 2000: 331,285), Ohio, U.S. Situated on the Ohio River across from Kentucky, it was first settled in 1788; the area was renamed in 1790 to honour the Society of the Cincinnati. A river port after 1811, it grew in importance with the opening of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1832. Its manufactures include transportation equipment and building materials, and it is a major inland coal port. A cultural centre, it has an orchestra, opera and ballet companies, and several notable museums. It is the seat of the University of Cincinnati (1819), the birthplace of Wil¬ liam Howard Taft (now a national historical site), and the site of the Har¬ riet Beecher Stowe House, where she lived briefly and frequently visited her family during her tenure in the city (1832-50).

Cincinnati, Society of the Hereditary, military, and patriotic organi¬ zation formed in 1783 by officers who had served in the American Revo¬ lution. The group’s aims were to promote union, maintain war-forged friendships, and help members in need. Membership was offered to all officers and their eldest male descendants. George Washington was its first president. The group took its name from the Roman citizen-soldier Cin- cinnatus. The city of Cincinnati was named in its honour in 1790.

Cinco de Mayo \'seq-ko-da-'mI-o\ Spanish "Fifth of May" Mexi¬ can holiday commemorating the Mexican victory over the French at Pue¬ bla in 1862. The French army, better-equipped and far larger than the Mexican army, had been sent by Napoleon III to conquer Mexico. The Mexicans, under Gen. Ignacio Zaragoza, defeated the French at Puebla, inflicting serious losses. The French withdrew to the coast but returned the next year to take Puebla; they would control most of Mexico for the next four years. Cinco de Mayo celebrations often include music, danc¬ ing, and parades.

cinder cone or ash cone Deposit around a volcanic vent, formed by rock fragments or cinders that accumulate and gradually build a conical hill with a bowl-shaped crater at the top. Cinder cones develop from explosive eruptions of lavas and are often found along the flanks of shield (gently sloping) volcanoes. Lava flows may break out of the cone, or they may flow from under the cone through tunnels. Cinder cones are common in nearly all volcanic areas. Although they are composed of loose or only moderately consolidated cinder, many are surprisingly long-lasting, because rain falling on them sinks into the highly permeable cinders instead of running off down their slopes and eroding them.

cinema verite Vsi-no-mo-.ver-i-'taV French : "truth cinema" French film movement of the 1960s that strove for candid realism by

showing people in everyday situations with authentic dialogue. Influenced by documentary filmmaking and Italian Neorealism, the method produced such outstanding examples as Jean Rouch’s Chronicle of a Summer ( 1961) and Chris Marker’s Joli Mai (1962). A similar movement in the U.S., where it was called “direct cinema,” captured the reality of a person or an event by using a handheld camera to record action without narration, as in Frederick Wiseman’s Titicut Follies (1967) and the Maysles broth¬ ers’ Salesman (1969).

cinematography Art and technology of motion-picture photography. It involves the composition of a scene, lighting of the set and actors, choice of cameras, camera angle, and integration of special effects to achieve the photographic images desired by the director. Cinematography focuses on relations between the individual shots and groups of shots that make up a scene to produce a film’s effect. Well-known cinematographers include Nestor Almendros, Gregg Toland, and Sven Nykvist.

cinnabar Mercury sulfide (HgS), the chief ore mineral of mercury. It is commonly encountered with pyrite, marcasite, and stibnite in veins near recent volcanic rocks and in hot- springs deposits. It has been used as a bright orange-red pigment in stage makeup (now known to be toxic), painting, and Chinese lacquerwork.

cinnamon Bushy evergreen tree {Cinnamomum zeylanicum) of the laurel family. Native to Sri Lanka,

India, and Burma, cinnamon is also cultivated in South America and the West Indies for the spice consisting of its dried inner bark. The light- brown spice has a delicately fragrant aroma and warm, sweet flavor. It was once more valuable than gold. Today cinnamon is used to flavor various foods. In Europe and the U.S. it is especially popular in bakery goods. The oil is distilled from bark frag¬ ments for use in food, liqueur, perfume, and drugs.

Cinque Ports VsiqkV Medieval confederation of English Channel ports, southeastern England. To the original “five ports”—Hastings, New Rom¬ ney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich—were later added Winchelsea and Rye. Probably first associated in the reign of Edward the Confessor (r. 1042- 66) to defend the coast and cross-channel traffic, they were granted spe¬ cial privileges by the crown and in exchange provided the permanent nucleus of ships and men for the royal fleet. They declined in importance after the 14th century.

cinquefoil \'siqk-foil\ Any of the approximately 500 species of shrubs and herbaceous plants in the genus Potentilla (rose family). The com¬ mon name, meaning “five-leaved,” refers to the number of leaflets in the compound leaf of most species. Most species are native to the northern temperate zone and the Arctic and are chiefly perennial. The stems are creeping or erect. The solitary, five- petaled flowers are usually yellow, sometimes white or red in horticul¬ tural varieties. P. fruticosa includes many dwarf shrubs used in landscap¬ ing (see LANDSCAPE GARDENING).

Ciompi Ycham-peV, Revolt of the (1378) Uprising of cloth workers and other craftsmen in Florence that brought a democratic government to power. A struggle between ruling factions triggered the rebellion, which was led by the ciompi (wool carders). The rebels demanded a more equi¬ table fiscal policy and the right to establish guilds for those groups not already organized. They took over the government briefly, but worsening economic conditions and the combined efforts of the established guilds soon led to their ouster.

circadian rhythm \s3r-'ka-de-3n\ Inherent cycle of approximately 24 hours in length that appears to control or initiate various biological pro¬ cesses, including sleep, wakefulness, and digestive and hormonal activ¬ ity. The natural signal for the circadian pattern is the change from darkness

Common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex )

ARTHUR W. AMBLER FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS-EB INC.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

408 i Circassian ► circus

to light. The controlling mechanism for these cyclic processes within the body is thought to be the hypothalamus. Any change in the circadian cycle (such as jet lag and other conditions associated with travel) requires a cer¬ tain period for readjustment.

Circassian \s9r-'ka-shon\ language Northwestern Caucasian lan¬ guage, with major eastern and western dialect groups. Until the 1860s Circassian-speaking groups inhabited the entire northwestern Caucasus region, including the Black Sea coast. After the Russian conquest of the northwestern Caucasus in 1864, most Circassian-speakers immigrated to the Ottoman Empire and were eventually settled in present-day Turkey, Syria, Jordan, and Israel. Only scattered enclaves of Western Circassian- speakers stayed in Russia. A greater number of Eastern Circassians remained; most now live in Russia’s northern Caucasus republics. Rus¬ sian Circassian-speakers now number about 550,000; the number outside Russia is indeterminable, because many ethnic Circassians have switched to the dominant languages of their new countries.

Circe \'sor-se\ In Greek legend, a sorceress, the daughter of the sun god Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. By means of drugs and incantations she turned humans into lions, wolves, or swine. Odysseus visited her on his return from the Trojan War, and she changed his companions into swine. Odysseus himself was protected by an herb given him by Hermes, and he compelled the sorceress to restore his companions. He and Circe became lovers, but after a yearlong stay he resumed his journey home¬ ward.

Circeo \chir-'cha-o\, Mt. ancient Circaeum Promontorium.

Mountain, southwestern coast of Italy. The promontory, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, rises 1,775 ft (541 m), and is connected with the mainland by a low saddle. About 33 sq mi (86 sq km) are preserved as a national park. From the sea it resembles an island, and it has been associated with the legend of Circe since classical times. Its coastal grottoes have yielded traces of Stone Age settlement, and there are remains of a Roman acropolis.

circle Geometrical curve, one of the conic sections, consisting of the set of all points the same distance (the radius) from a given point (the cen¬ tre). A line connecting any two points on a circle is called a chord, and a chord passing through the centre is called a diameter. The distance around a circle (the circumference) equals the length of a diameter multiplied by k (see pi). The area of a circle is the square of the radius multiplied by n. An arc consists of any part of a circle encompassed by an angle with its vertex at the centre (central angle). Its length is in the same proportion to the circumference as the central angle is to a full revolution.

circuit or electric circuit Path that transmits electric current. A circuit includes a battery or a generator that gives energy to the charged par¬ ticles; devices that use current, such as lamps, motors, or electronic com¬ puters; and connecting wires or transmission lines. Circuits can be classified according to the type of current they carry (see alternating cur¬ rent, direct current) or according to whether the current remains whole (series) or divides to flow through several branches simultaneously (par¬ allel). Two basic laws that describe the performance of electric circuits are Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's circuit rules. See also tuned circuit.

circuit, printed See printed circuit circuitry, computer See computer circuitry

circuit riding In the U.S., the act, once undertaken by a judge, of trav¬ eling within a judicial district (or circuit) to facilitate the hearing of cases. The practice was largely abandoned with the establishment of permanent courthouses and laws requiring parties to appear before a sitting judge.

circulation Process by which nutrients, respiratory gases, and metabolic products are transported throughout the body. In humans, blood remains within a closed cardiovascular system composed of the heart, blood ves¬ sels, and blood. Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pres¬ sure exerted by the heart’s pumping action. Arteries divide into smaller arterioles, which branch into a network of tiny capillaries with thin walls across which gases and nutrients diffuse. Capillaries rejoin into larger venules, which unite to form veins, which carry blood back to the heart. (See artery; capillary; vein.) The right and left heart chambers send blood into separate pulmonary and systemic circulations. In the first, blood is carried from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide; in the second, blood is carried between the heart and the rest of the body, where it carries oxygen, nutrients, metabolic products, and wastes. See illustration above.

right common

internal jugular vein

right pulmonary artery

right subclavian artery

right subclavian vein

superior vena cava right veins

ventricle right inferior vena

vessels liver

renal blood vessels

superior mesenteric artery

ascending colon

common iliac

external iliac vein

brachiocephalic (innominate) artery

left common carotid artery left subclavian artery -aorta

left pulmonary artery

pulmonary veins

left atrium

ventricle

aorta

gastric arteries

spleen

splenic artery

stomach

-inferior

mesenteric artery

descending

colon

external iliac artery

Human circulatory system. Oxygen-rich blood is shown in red, oxygen-poor blood in blue. The pulmonary circulation consists of the right ventricle and the exiting pul¬ monary artery and its branches, the arterioles, capillaries, and venules of the lung, and the pulmonary vein. Unlike the other arteries and veins, the pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood and the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood. The aorta arises from the left ventricle. The brachiocephalic artery arises from the aorta and divides into the right common carotid and right subclavian arteries. The left and right common carotids extend on either side of the neck and supply much of the head and neck. The left subclavian artery (arising from the aorta) and the right subclavian artery supply the arms. In the lower abdomen, the aorta divides into the common iliac arteries, which give rise to external and internal branches supplying the legs.

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circumcision Cutting away of all or part of the foreskin (prepuce) of the penis. The practice is known in many cultures. It is performed either shortly after birth (e.g., among Muslims and Jews), within a few years of birth, or at puberty. For Jews it represents the fulfillment of the covenant between God and Abraham (Genesis 17:10-14). That Christians were not obliged to be circumcised was first recorded biblically in Acts 15. Evi¬ dence regarding the purported medical benefits of circumcision (e.g., reduced risk of cancer) is inconclusive, and the practice persists mainly for cultural reasons. See also clitoridectomy.

circumstantial evidence In law, evidence that is drawn not from direct observation of a fact at issue but from events or circumstances that surround it. If a witness arrives at a crime scene seconds after hearing a gunshot to find someone standing over a corpse and holding a smoking pistol, the evidence is circumstantial, since the person may merely be a bystander who picked up the weapon after the killer dropped it. The popular notion that one cannot be convicted on circumstantial evidence is false. Most criminal convictions are based, at least in part, on circum¬ stantial evidence that sufficiently links criminal and crime.

circus Entertainment or spectacle featuring animal acts and human feats of daring. The modem circus was founded in England in 1768 by the bareback rider Philip Astley (1742-1814), who built stands around his performance ring and opened Astley’s Amphitheatre. One of his riders later established the Royal Circus (1782), the first modem use of the term.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Cirenaica ► city I 409

The first U.S. circus opened in Philadelphia in 1793. Horse acts were later joined by wild-animal acts. After the invention of the flying trapeze by Jules Leotard (1859), aerial acts were featured. P.T. Barnum expanded the traditional circus by adding two rings to create the three-ring circus (1881) and augmented it with sideshow performers. Circuses traveled through¬ out the U.S., Europe, and Latin America, performing in a tent (the Big Top) into the 1950s. Today circuses usually perform in permanent build¬ ings, though small troupes still travel with tents in some regions. By the late 20th century, notable circuses also had developed in Africa, India, Spain, Brazil, and Mexico. Perhaps the most innovative trend in circuses at the turn of the 21st century was the establishment of companies such as the Cirque du Soleil; these companies employed no animals, instead emphasizing acts of human skill and daring and integrating elements of contemporary music and dance into the overall performance.

Cirenaica See Cyrenaica

cirrhosis \s9-'ro-s9s\ Degeneration of functioning liver cells and their replacement with fibrous connective tissue, leading to scarring. The most common cause is alcohol abuse with malnutrition. Others include bile duct obstruction, viral infection, toxins, iron or copper accumulation in liver cells, and syphilis. Jaundice, edema, and great abdominal swelling are com¬ mon in all. Death usually results from internal bleeding or hepatic coma due to blood chemical imbalance.

Cisalpine \sis-'al-pln\ Republic Former republic, northern Italy. Cre¬ ated by Napoleon in 1797 from conquered territories, it was centred in the Po River valley and included the lands around Milan and Bologna. It was incorporated into the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy in 1805.

Ciskei \'sis-,kl\ Former black enclave. South Africa. Inhabited princi¬ pally by Xhosa-speaking peoples, it bordered the Indian Ocean and South Africa. In the late 18th century the Xhosa peoples living in the area came into conflict with European settlers; the ensuing wars resulted in the region’s incorporation into the Cape Colony by the end of the 19th cen¬ tury. Ciskei became an administratively distinct territory within South Africa in 1961. In 1972 it was declared a self-governing black state, with its capital at Bisho. In 1981 it became nominally independent. Under the new South African constitution, it was reincorporated (1994) into South Africa as part of the new Eastern Cape province.

Cistercian \sis-'t3r-sh3n\ or White Monk or Bernardine Member of a Roman Catholic monastic order founded by St. Stephen Harding (1098) at Citeaux (Latin, Cistercium), Burgundy, by Benedictines dissatis¬ fied with their abbey’s laxity. Cistercians were severely ascetic, rejected feudal revenues, and engaged in manual labor. Uniform rules applied to all houses, and all abbots were to meet annually at Citeaux. St. Bernard de Clairvaux founded 68 abbeys in his lifetime. Discipline declined as the order grew, and Cistercians disappeared from northern Europe after the Reformation. The order underwent reforms in the 16th-17th century; members of the reformed order are popularly known as Trappists after the abbey of La Trapp. Until the 1960s, they slept, ate, and worked in per¬ petual silence. The original order, which underwent more moderate reforms, also survives.

Citation (foaled 1945) U.S. Thoroughbred racehorse. In four seasons he won 32 of 45 races, finished second in ten, and third in two. He won the 1948 Triple Crown, and became the first horse to win $1 million. He set a world record in 1950 by running a mile in 1:33 3/5.

Citigroup U.S. holding company formed in 1998 from the merger of Cit¬ icorp (itself a holding company incorporated in 1967) and Travelers Group, Inc. The $70 billion merger included one of the largest U.S. invest¬ ment banks, Salomon Smith Barney Inc., and aimed at creating a global retail financial-services business. Citicorp, whose lineage can be traced to the First Bank of the United States, was noteworthy for its pioneering installation of automated teller machines throughout its branch offices in the 1970s. Before its merger with Travelers Group, Inc., Citicorp was the largest U.S. bank and one of the largest financial companies in the world, with about 3,000 branch offices worldwide.

Citizen Genet Affair \zho-'ne\ Incident precipitated by the French diplomat Citizen Edmond C. Genet (1763-1834), who was sent to the U.S. in 1793 by the French government to gain support for France’s war with Britain and Spain. In South Carolina Genet organized privateers to prey on British commerce and expeditions to attack Spanish and British territories. Pres. George Washington considered Genet’s activities a vio¬

lation of U.S. neutrality and demanded his recall. Facing possible death at the hands of the new regime in France, he was allowed to remain in the U.S.

citizenship Relationship between an individual and a state in which the individual owes allegiance to the state and in turn is entitled to its pro¬ tection. In general, full political rights, including the right to vote and to hold public office, are predicated on citizenship. Citizenship entails obli¬ gations, usually including allegiance, payment of taxes, and military ser¬ vice. The concept arose in ancient Greece, where citizenship was granted only to property owners. The Romans initially used it as a privilege to be conferred upon or withheld from conquered peoples, but it was granted to all the empire’s free inhabitants in ad 212. The concept disappeared in Europe during the feudal era but was revived in the Renaissance. Citi¬ zenship may normally be gained by birth within a certain territory, descent from a parent who is a citizen, marriage to a citizen, or naturalization. See also NATIONALITY.

Citlaltepetl Vse-.tlal-'ta-.pe-FL or Orizaba \,6-re-'sa-ba\ Volcano, south-central Mexico. Reaching 18,406 ft (5,610 m) high, its symmetri¬ cal, snowcapped cone is the highest point in Mexico and the third high¬ est peak in North America. The volcano has been dormant since 1687.

citric acid Colourless, crystalline organic compound (C 6 H 8 0 7 ), one of the carboxylic acids. It is present in almost all plants (especially citrus fruits) and in many animal tissues and fluids. It is one of a series of compounds involved in the physiological oxidation (see oxidation-reduction) of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water (see tricarboxylic acid cycle). It has a characteristic sharply sour taste and is used in many foods, confections, and soft drinks. It is added to certain foods to improve their stability in metal containers. Industrially, it is used as a water condi¬ tioner, cleaning and polishing agent, and chemical intermediate.

citric-acid cycle See tricarboxylic acid cycle

citrine \si-'tren\ Transparent, coarse-grained variety of the silica mineral quartz. Citrine is a semiprecious gem that is valued for its yellow to brownish colour and its resemblance to the rarer topaz. Natural citrine is rarer than amethyst or smoky quartz, both of which are often heated to change their natural colour to that of citrine. Citrine is often marketed under various names that confuse it with topaz to inflate its price; it may be distinguished from topaz by its inferior hardness. It occurs mainly in Brazil, Uruguay, the Ural Mountains, Scotland, and North Carolina.

Citroen \si-tro-'en\ Historic French automobile manufacturer. It was founded by Andre-Gustave Citroen (1878-1935), an engineer and indus¬ trialist who initially prospered by selling munitions in World War I. He converted his arms factory to produce small, inexpensive automobiles, introducing mass-production methods to the French auto industry. The first Citroen car appeared in 1919. The 1976 acquisition of Citroen by rival French automaker Peugeot led to the creation of PSA Peugeot Cit¬ roen SA, which was a leading European manufacturer of trucks and auto¬ mobiles.

citron Small evergreen tree or shrub (Citrus medico). A member of the rue family, citron is cultivated in Mediterranean countries and the West Indies. It has irregular, spreading, spiny branches and large, pale green, broadly oblong leaves. The flowers of the acidic varieties (e.g., the Dia¬ mante) are purple on the outside and white on the inside; those of sweet varieties (e.g., the Corsican) are creamy white. The oval or oblong fruit yields firm pulp, either acidic or sweet, that is used only for by-products. The thick peel is cured in brine, candied, and sold as a confection. The fruit of the Etrog variety is used in Jewish religious rites.

citrus Any of the plants that make up the genus Citrus, in the rue family, that yield pulpy fruits covered with fairly thick skins. The genus includes the lemon, lime, sweet and sour oranges, tangerine, grapefruit, citron, and shaddock (C. maxima, or C. grandis', also called pomelo).

citrus family See rue family

city Relatively permanent and highly organized centre of population, of greater size or importance than a town or village. The first cities appeared in Neolithic times when the development of agricultural techniques assured surplus crop yields large enough to sustain a permanent popula¬ tion. Ancient Greece saw the creation of the city-state, a form also impor¬ tant in the emergence of the Roman empire as well as the medieval Italian trading centers of Venice, Genoa, and Florence. After the Middle Ages, cities came increasingly under the political control of centralized govem-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

410 I city government ► civil law

ment and served the interests of the nation-state. The Industrial Revolution further transformed city life, as factory cities blossomed rapidly in England, northwestern Europe, and the northeastern U.S. By the mid-20th century, 30-60% of a country’s population might be living in its major urban centers. With the rise of the automobile came the growth of sub¬ urbs and urban sprawl, as factories, offices, and residences erected in ear¬ lier periods became aged and obsolete. Today many cities suffer from lack of adequate housing, sanitation, recreational space, and transportation facilities, and face problems of inner-city decay or burgeoning shanty¬ towns. Local governments have sought to alleviate these problems through URBAN PLANNING.

city government Set of governmental institutions that serve an urban area or urban municipality. All cities derive their existence from a larger political entity, either a state or national government. City government generally includes an executive (a mayor or manager) and a legislature (a council or commission), both of which may be subject to popular elec¬ tion. Their most important functions are the provision of services, includ¬ ing public safety, health care, education, recreation, housing, utilities, transportation, and cultural facilities. Revenues come from local taxes and fees as well as grants and subsidies from its state or national government.

city-state Political system consisting of an independent city with sov¬ ereignty over a fixed surrounding area for which it served as leader of reli¬ gious, political, economic, and cultural life. The term was coined in the 19th century to describe ancient Greek and Phoenician settlements that differed from tribal or national systems in size, exclusivity, patriotism, and ability to resist incorporation by other communities. They may have developed when earlier tribal systems broke down and splintered groups established themselves as independent nuclei c. 1000-800 bc; by the 5th century bc they numbered in the hundreds, with Athens, Sparta, and Thebes among the most important. Incapable of forming any lasting union or fed¬ eration, they eventually fell victim to the Macedonians, the Carthagin¬ ians, and the Roman empire. In the 11th century the city-state revived in Italy; the success of medieval Italy’s city-states, including Pisa, Florence, Venice, and Genoa, was due to growing prosperity from trade with the East, and several survived into the 19th century. Germany’s medieval city-states included Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck. The only city-state extant today is Vatican City.

Ciudad Guayana V.syii-'thath-ga-'ya-na \ formerly Santo Tome de Guayana City (pop., 2000 est.: 704,168), Venezuela. Located at the confluence of the Carom and Orinoco rivers in the Guiana Highlands, the city site was first settled in 1576. An amalgamation of several cities, Ciudad Guayana is a planned community founded by the state assembly in 1961. It has forestry, diamond mining, and paper and pulp enterprises.

Ciudad Juarez See Juarez

Ciudad Victoria \ l syii-'thath-vek- , t6r-ya\ City (pop., 2000: 249,029), capital of Tamaulipas state, northeastern Mexico. Founded in 1750, the settlement was renamed in 1825 for Mexico’s first president, Guadalupe Victoria. In addition to being a distribution point in an agricultural region, it is a tourist destination and a centre for hunting, fishing, and swimming. The University of Tamaulipas was established in 1956.

civet Vsi-v3t\ Any of 15-20 species of long-bodied, short-legged carni¬ vores (family Viverridae) found in Africa, southern Europe, and Asia.

Catlike in appearance, civets have a thickly furred tail, small ears, and pointed snout. Civets are commonly buff or grayish, with black spots or stripes or both. They range in length from 16 to 34 in. (40-85 cm), excluding the 5-26-in. (13-66-cm) tail, and in weight from 3.3 to 24 lbs (1.5—11 kg). Civets mark territories with a greasy, musklike secretion (called civet) stored in a pouch under the tail; civet is sometimes used in the manufacture of perfumes. Usu¬ ally solitary, civets feed on small animals and on vegetable matter. Five species are considered in possible danger of extinction.

civic center Grouping of municipal facilities in a limited precinct often adjacent to the central business district of a city. The civic center is based

on both the Greek acropolis and the Roman forum. The plan includes the city hall and adjoining park or plaza, headquarters for city departments, courthouses, and often a post office, public-utility offices, public health facilities, and government offices.

civic theatre Theatre wholly or partly subsidized by the city in which it operates. The term is also used for a noncommercial community the¬ atre, meaning a noncommercial, locally based group. Most civic theatres in Europe are professional organizations; in the U.S. they are often run by amateur groups and may later become resident professional theatres. The first major U.S. civic theatre was established in New Orleans in 1919.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 12, 1790) Act, passed by the National Assembly during the French Revolution, that subordinated the Roman Catholic church in France to the state. Under its provisions, enfranchised citizens would elect bishops and parish priests and the state would pay the clergy’s wages. The act soon provoked opposition, and when the National Assembly ordered the clergy to take an oath support¬ ing the Civil Constitution, many refused. The resulting schism within the French church caused many devout Catholics to turn against the Revo¬ lution.

civil defense All nonmilitary actions taken to reduce loss of life and property resulting from enemy action. The threat of aerial attack on cit¬ ies led to organized civil-defense planning in World War II. The British government provided its people with gas masks, and nearly all countries trained citizens in fire fighting, rescue, and first aid. Blackouts reduced the glow from city lights that could guide enemy pilots; sirens warned of bombing attacks, and citizens took cover in air-raid shelters, basements, and subways. The postwar threat of nuclear attack prompted civil authori¬ ties to mark buildings that offered the best shelter from fallout. By the 1970s the West had largely abandoned civil-defense preparations as it became clear that surviving a direct nuclear attack was unlikely.

civil disobedience or passive resistance Refusal to obey gov¬ ernment demands or commands and nonresistance to consequent arrest and punishment. It is used especially as a nonviolent and usually collec¬ tive means of forcing government concessions and has been a major tac¬ tic of nationalist movements in Africa and India, of the U.S. civil rights movement, and of labour and antiwar movements in many countries. Civil disobedience is a symbolic or ritualistic violation of the law, rather than a rejection of the system as a whole. The civil disobedient, finding legiti¬ mate avenues of change blocked or nonexistent, sees himself as obligated by a higher, extralegal principle to break some specific law. By submit¬ ting to punishment, the civil disobedient hopes to set a moral example that will provoke the majority or the government into effecting meaning¬ ful political, social, or economic change. The philosophical roots of civil disobedience lie deep in Western thought. Cicero, Thomas Aquinas, and John Locke, among others, appealed to systems of natural law that take precedence over the laws created by communities or states (positive law). More modern advocates and practitioners of civil disobedience include Henry David Thoreau, Mohandas K. Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr.

civil engineering Profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general public, including bridges, canals, dams, har¬ bors, lighthouses, roads, tunnels, and environmental works (e.g., water- supply systems). The modern field includes power plants, aircraft and airports, chemical-processing plants, and water-treatment facilities. Civil engineering today involves site investigations and feasibility studies, structural design and analysis, construction, and facilities maintenance. The design of engineering works requires the application of design theory from many fields (e.g., hydraulics, thermodynamics, nuclear physics). Research in structural analysis and the technology of materials such as steel and concrete has opened the way for new concepts and greater economy of materials. The engineer’s analysis of a building problem determines the structural system to be used. Structural designs are rigor¬ ously analyzed by computers to determine if they will withstand loads and natural forces.

civil law Body of law developed from Roman law and used in conti¬ nental Europe and most former colonies of European nations, including the province of Quebec and the U.S. state of Louisiana. The most sig¬ nificant codifications of modern civil law were the French (Napoleonic Code) and the German (German Civil Code). The basis of law in civil-law jurisdictions is statute, not CUSTOM; civil law is thus to be distinguished from common law. In civil law, judges apply principles embodied in stat¬ utes, or law codes, rather than turning to case precedent. French civil law

African palm civet (Nandinia binotata)

ROBERT C. HERMES FROM THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY COLLECTION/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

civil liberty ► Claiborne I 411

forms the basis of the legal systems of The Netherlands, Belgium, Lux¬ embourg, Italy, Spain, most of France’s former possessions overseas, and many Latin American countries. German civil law prevails in Austria, Switzerland, the Scandinavian countries, and certain countries outside Europe, such as Japan, that have westernized their legal systems. The term is also used to distinguish the law that applies to private rights from the law that applies to criminal matters. See also criminal law; tort.

civil liberty Freedom from arbitrary interference in one’s pursuits by individuals or by government. The term is usually used in the plural. Civil liberties are protected explicitly in the constitutions of most democratic countries. (In authoritarian countries, civil liberties are often formally guaranteed in a constitution but ignored in practice.) In the U.S., civil liberties are guaranteed by the Bill of Rights and the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution’s 13th Amendment prohibits slavery and involuntary servitude; the 14th bars the application of any law that would abridge the “privileges and immunities” of U.S. citizens or deprive any person of “life, liberty, or property...without due process of law” or deny any person equal protec¬ tion under the law; and the 15th guarantees the right of all U.S. citizens to vote. The related term civil right is often used to refer to one or more of these liberties or indirectly to the obligation of government to protect certain classes of people from violations of one or more of their civil lib¬ erties (e.g., the obligation to protect racial minorities from discrimination on the basis of race). In the U.S., civil rights are protected by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent legislation. See also American Civil Liberties Union.

civil religion Set of quasi-religious attitudes, beliefs, rituals, and sym¬ bols that tie members of a political community together. As originally for¬ mulated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the concept referred to the virtues that citizens need to serve the state. The concept was later elaborated by the American sociologist Robert N. Bellah (b. 1927), who found in the U.S. a strong sense of “American exceptionalism” and reverence for secular elements such as the national flag, the Constitution, the Founding Fathers, the annual holiday calendar, and the concepts of individualism and self- reliance. Another form of civil religion is presented by the example of Confucianism, where the nation is subordinated to a moral order.

Civil Rights Act of T 964 Comprehensive U.S. law intended to end discrimination based on race, colour, religion, or national origin. It is gen¬ erally considered the most important U.S. law on civil rights since Recon¬ struction (1865-77). It guarantees equal voting rights (Title I); prohibits segregation or discrimination in places of public accommodation (Title II); bans discrimination, including sex-based discrimination, by trade unions, schools, or employers that are involved in interstate commerce or that do business with the federal government (Title VII); calls for the desegregation of public schools (Title IV); and assures nondiscrimination in the distribution of funds under federally assisted programs (Title VI). A 1972 amendment, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act, extended Title VII coverage to employees of state and local governments and increased the authority of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, which was created in 1964 to enforce Title VII provisions. The act was proposed by Pres. John F. Kennedy in 1963 and strengthened and passed into law under Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson. See also civil rights movement.

civil rights movement Movement for racial equality in the U.S. that, through nonviolent protest, broke the pattern of racial segregation in the South and achieved equal rights legislation for blacks. Following the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), African American and white supporters attempted to end entrenched seg¬ regationist practices. When Rosa Parks was arrested in 1955 in Montgom¬ ery, Ala., an African American boycott of the bus system was led by Martin Luther King, Jr., and Ralph Abernathy. In the early 1960s the Stu¬ dent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee led boycotts and sit-ins to desegregate many public facilities. Using the nonviolent methods of Mohandas K. Gandhi, the movement spread, forcing the desegregation of department stores, supermarkets, libraries, and movie theatres. The Deep South remained adamant in its opposition to most desegregation mea¬ sures, often violently; protesters were attacked and occasionally killed. Their efforts culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., in 1963 to sup¬ port civil rights legislation. Following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson persuaded Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a victory that was followed by the Voting Rights Act in 1965. After 1965, militant groups such as the Black Panther Party split off from the civil rights movement, and riots in black ghettos and King’s assassi¬

nation caused many supporters to withdraw. In the succeeding decades, leaders sought power through elective office and substantive economic and educational gains through affirmative action.

civil service Body of government officials employed in civil occupa¬ tions that are neither political nor judicial. In well-ordered societies, they are usually recruited and promoted on the basis of a merit-and-seniority system, which may include examinations; elsewhere, corruption and patronage are more important factors. They often serve as neutral advis¬ ers to elected officials and political appointees. Though not responsible for making policy, they are charged with its execution. The civil service originated in the earliest known Middle Eastern societies; the modern European civil services date to 17th- and 18th-century Prussia and the electors of Brandenburg. In the U.S., senior officials change with each new administration. In Europe, regulations were established in the 19th century to minimize favouritism and to ensure a wide range of knowledge and skills among civil service officers. See also Chinese examination sys¬ tem; SPOILS SYSTEM.

Civil Service Act, Pendleton See Pendleton Civil Service Act

Civil War See American Civil War

Civil Wars, English See English Civil Wars

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933^42) U.S. unemploy¬ ment program. One of the earliest New Deal programs, it was established to relieve unemployment during the Great Depression by providing national conservation work primarily for young unmarried men. Recruits lived in semimilitary work camps and received $30 a month as well as food and medical care. Projects included planting trees, building flood barriers, fighting forest fires, and maintaining forest roads and trails. It employed a total of 3 million men during its existence.

Cixi \'ts9-'she\ or Tz'u-hsi known as the Empress Dowager (b.

Nov. 29, 1835, Beijing, China—d. Nov. 15, 1908, Beijing) Imperial con¬ sort who controlled the Chinese Qing dynasty for almost half a century. A low-ranking concubine of the Xianfeng emperor (r. 1850-61), Cixi bore his only son, the future Tongzhi emperor, in 1856. After the emperor’s death, Cixi joined a triumviral regency that governed in the name of her son, who was only 6 at his accession. During that period the Taiping and Nian rebellions were put down and the government was briefly revital¬ ized. When Cixi’s son died in 1875, Cixi violated the laws of succession and had her adoptive nephew enthroned. The regency thus continued, with Cixi becoming sole regent in 1884. In 1889 she nominally relinquished control but returned in 1898 to undo a set of radical reforms and had her nephew imprisoned in his palace. She supported the unsuccessful Boxer Rebellion, which had disastrous consequences for China. In 1902 she began to implement the reforms she had earlier reversed. Before she died, she ordered her nephew poisoned. See also Zeng Guofan; Zhang Zhidong.

Cixous \sek-'zus\, Helene (b. June 5, 1937, Oran, Alg.) Algerian-born French feminist critic, novelist, and playwright. She was reared in Alg¬ iers and has taught principally at the University of Paris. Her essays, in collections such as The Newly Born Woman (1975; with Catherine Cle¬ ment), explore issues of sexual difference and female experience in writ¬ ing. The Book of Promethea (1983) and other works reinterpret myths and the mythic past and analyze Western representations of women. Her nov¬ els include Inside (1969), Reading with Clarice Lispector (1989), and Osnabriick (1999).

Cizin \ke-'sen\ Mayan god of earthquakes and death. He may have rep¬ resented one aspect of a malevolent underworld deity known by various names and in various guises. In Mayan manuscripts, he was depicted with the god of war in scenes of human sacrifice; he was also depicted as a dancing skeleton. His death collar was adorned with eyeballs dangling by their nerve cords. After the Spanish Conquest, he merged with the Chris¬ tian devil, Satan.

Claiborne, William (b. c. 1587, Westmorland County, Eng.—d. c. 1677, Virginia) American colonial trader and public official. Emigrating to Virginia in 1621, he was appointed secretary of state of the colony and a member of the governor’s royal council. He traded with the Indians of Chesapeake Bay and in 1631 established a successful trading post on Kent Island. Denied his claim to the island, he incited a revolt (1644) that ousted the Maryland governor and left Claiborne in charge of the colony until 1646. From 1652 to 1657 he was a member of the commission that gov¬ erned Maryland.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

412 I Clair ► Clarendon Code

Clair, Rene orig. Rene-Lucien Chomette (b. Nov. 11, 1898, Paris, France—d. March 15,1981, Neuilly- sur-Seine) French film director. He acted in silent films from 1920 until 1923, when he wrote and directed Paris qui dort. That film, along with Entr’acte (1924) and the satiric farce The Italian Straw Hat (1927), estab¬ lished his reputation as a leader of the avant-garde. He used sound cre¬ atively in early talkies such as Sous les toits de Paris (1930) and A nous la liberte! (1931). The Ghost Goes West (1935), made in England, was an international success. During World War 11 he directed several Hollywood films, including And Then There Were None (1945), then returned to France to make Le Silence est d’or (1947) and Les Belles de nuit (1952).

clam In general, any bivalve mollusk.

True clams, in the strict sense, have equal shells, closed by two opposing muscles, and a powerful, muscular, burrowing foot. They usually lie bur¬ ied in the sand in shallow marine waters. Clams draw in and expel water for respiration and feeding through two tubes, the siphons. Spe¬ cies range in size from 0.004 in. to 4 ft (0.1 mm-1.2 m) across. Many spe¬ cies are edible, including the coquina clam, geoduck, quahog, and soft-shell clam.

clan Kinship group based on actual or purported descent from a common ancestor, as traced through the male (patrician) or the female (matriclan) line. Clans are normally exogamous, marriage within the clan being regarded as incest. Clans may segment into subclans or lineages, and genealogical records and myths may be altered to incorporate new mem¬ bers who lack kinship ties with the clan. Clan membership may be useful in ensuring mutual support and defense as well as in the mediation of disputes over property rights and the mode of residence after marriage. Some clans express their unity by means of a common emblem. See also EXOGAMY AND ENDOGAMY.

Clancy, Tom orig. Thomas Clancy (b. March 12, 1947, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) U.S. novelist. Clancy worked as an insurance agent before beginning his writing career. His first novel was the surprise best-seller The Hunt for Red October (1984; film, 1990), which virtually created the “technothriller” genre, suspenseful novels that rely on extensive knowl¬ edge of military technology and espionage. Later successes include Red Storm Rising (1986), Patriot Games (1987; film, 1992), Clear and Present Danger (1989; film, 1994), Sum of All Fears (1991; film, 2000), and The Bear and the Dragon (2000).

clapboard Vkla-bardX Narrow board tapered toward one edge, used as siding to cover the exterior of a framed building. Clapboards are attached horizontally, each overlapping the next one down. Cleft oak clapboard was introduced to New England in the 17th century; later materials included pine, cypress, and cedar.

claque \'klak\ Group of people hired to clap (French, claquer) and show approval in order to influence a theatre audience. The claque dates from ancient times. Comedy competitions in Athens were often won by con¬ testants who infiltrated audiences with paid supporters. The practice was widespread in Rome, where the emperor Nero established a school of applause. In 19th-century France most theatres had specialized claques: rieurs laughed loudly at comedies, pleureuses wept at melodramas, and bisseurs shouted for encores. The practice persists today in the operatic world.

Clare County (pop., 1996: 94,006), western Ireland. Bordered by the River Shannon and the Atlantic Ocean, it is located in the province of Munster, and its county seat is Ennis. It has peat- and bog-covered hills,

plateaus, lowlands, and limestone areas. Chief crops are oats and pota¬ toes; livestock raising and fishing also are important. Evidence of prehis¬ toric settlement includes many megaliths and some 2,000 fortified enclosures. There are numerous early Christian sites. The region remained under the lordship of the O’Briens until the 16th century despite Anglo- Norman colonization in the 12th century. It was made a shire in the reign of Elizabeth I. In 1828 Daniel O'Connell won the election in Clare that led to the emancipation of Catholics in Ireland.

Clare, John (b. July 13, 1793, Helpston, near Peterborough, Northamp¬ tonshire, Eng.—d. May 20, 1864, Northampton, Northamptonshire) Brit¬ ish poet. Clare grew up in extreme rural poverty, with little access to books, but he had a prodigious memory and absorbed folk ballads. His Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery (1820) brought a short period of celebrity, but later volumes, including The Shepherd’s Calendar (1827) and The Rural Muse (1835), sold poorly. Suffering from penury and poor health, he fell prey to delusions and was placed in an asylum in 1837. After four years he briefly escaped; certified insane, he spent his final 23 years in another asylum, where he wrote some of his most lucid, lyrical poetry.

Clare of Assisi, Saint (b. July 16, 1194, Assisi, duchy of Spoleto—d. Aug. 11, 1253, Assisi; canonized 1255; feast day August 11) Founder of the order of Poor Clares (Clarissines). Born to a noble family, she became devoted to her fellow Assisian St. Francis. She refused to marry and in 1212 fled to the Porziuncola Chapel, where St. Francis received her vows. She later became abbess of a female religious community that included her sister, St. Agnes, and her mother. Her order, the Second Order of St. Francis, or Poor Clares, adopted the absolute poverty of St. Francis but was strictly cloistered, unlike its counterpart, the Franciscans. Still allied with the Franciscans, the Poor Clares are noted for their poverty and their life of penitential prayer led for the good of church and society.

Claremont Colleges Consortium of private colleges in Claremont, California, U.S. It comprises Pomona College (founded 1887), the Cla¬ remont Graduate School (1925), Scripps College (1926), Claremont Mc¬ Kenna College (1946), Harvey Mudd College (1955), and Pitzer College (1963). Each offers a broad range of degree programs, and they share a high academic reputation. The campuses are adjacent to one another and many facilities are shared.

Clarendon, Constitutions of (1164) Sixteen articles issued by King Henry II defining church-state relations in England. Designed to restrict ecclesiastical privileges and curb the power of the church courts, the con¬ stitutions provoked the famous quarrel between Henry and St. Thomas Becket. Among their controversial measures were the provisions that all revenues from vacant sees and monasteries reverted to the king, who had discretion in filling the vacant offices, and that clerics charged with seri¬ ous crimes were to be tried in secular courts. Becket’s martyrdom in 1170 forced Henry to moderate his attack on the clergy, but he did not repu¬ diate the constitutions.

Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1 st earl of (b. Feb. 18, 1609, Dinton, Wiltshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 9, 1674, Rouen, France.) English statesman and historian. A successful lawyer, he was also well known in literary circles. As a member of Parliament, he became an adviser to Charles I, recom¬ mending moderate policies, but was unable to prevent the English Civil Wars. He helped bring about the Restoration of Charles II and was created earl of Clarendon in 1661. As lord chancellor (1660-67), he dominated most aspects of the administration. His criticism of the king’s immorality eventually destroyed their friendship, and Parliament made him a scape¬ goat for the disasters of the Anglo-Dutch War of 1665. Dismissed as lord chancellor in 1667, he spent the rest of his life in exile in France, where he completed his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England.

Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers, 4th earl of

(b. Jan. 12,1800, London, Eng.—d. June 27, 1870, London) British states¬ man. After serving as British ambassador to Spain (1833-39), he held various cabinet posts until Lord Aberdeen named him secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1853. Clarendon failed to prevent the outbreak of the Crimean War, and his performance during it was undistinguished, but he secured favourable terms for Britain at the Congress of Paris (1856). He continued in office under Lord Palmerston until 1858 and also served as foreign secretary under Earl Russell (1865-66) and William E. Gladstone

(1868-70).

Clarendon Code (1661-65) Four acts, passed in England during the ministry of the earl of Clarendon, designed to cripple the power of the

Clair, photograph by Yousuf Karsh

© KARSH FROM RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS

(Left) Quahog (Mercenaria); (ri gFt) soft-shell clam [Mya]

RUSS KINNE-PHOTO RESEARCHERS

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

clarinet ► class I 413

Nonconformists, or Dissenters. The first, the Corporation Act, forbade municipal office to those not taking the sacraments at a parish church; the Act of Conformity excluded them from church offices; the Conventicle Act made meetings for Nonconformist worship illegal; and the Five-Mile Act forbade Nonconformist ministers to live or visit within five miles of any place where they had ministered.

clarinet Single-reed woodwind instrument. It is a standard member of both orchestras and bands. It has a cylindrical bore and a flared bell, and it is usually made of African blackwood ( Dalbergia melanoxylon, more commonly called renadilla). It has a 3V6-octave range; its lower register is rich and its top register is brilliant. It developed from the slightly older two-key chalumeau; the German flute maker Johann Christoff Denner (1655-1707) is said to have invented it at the beginning of the 18th cen¬ tury. The B-flat clarinet is the standard instrument today; the A clarinet often replaces it in sharp keys. Clarinets with the fingering system devised by Theobald Boehm are standard in the U.S., Great Britain, and France; those employing an older fingering style are used in Germany and Rus¬ sia. Clarinets of other sizes include the C clarinet, much used in the Clas¬ sical period and often preserved in German orchestration; octave clarinets in A, used in large European bands; and sopranino clarinets in F and later E-flat. The B-flat bass clarinet, with its rich timbre, is the next most fre¬ quently employed member of the clarinet family. Contrabass clarinets are made in E-flat or in B-flat.

Clark, Champ orig. James Beauchamp Clark (b. March 7,1850, near Lawrenceburg, Ky., U.S.—d. March 2,1921, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. Clark moved to Missouri in 1876 and settled at Bowling Green. He was successively a newspaper editor, a prosecuting attorney, and a state legislator; he was then elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served 13 terms (1893-95, 1897-1921). A follower of William Jennings Bryan, he supported agrarian measures. As a member of the House rules committee in 1910, he led the revolt against Joseph Cannon and succeeded him as speaker (1911-19). At the 1912 Democratic Party convention, Clark was a leading contender for the presidential nomina¬ tion until Bryan switched his support to Woodrow Wilson.

Clark, Dick in full Richard Wagstaff Clark (b. Nov. 30, 1929, Mount Vernon, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. television personality. He worked as a radio and television announcer before beginning his long engagement as host of the TV show American Bandstand (1956-89), a showcase for popular music. He formed his own production company in 1956 and pro¬ duced over 30 series, 250 specials, and 20 TV movies.

Clark, George Rogers (b. Nov. 19, 1752, Albemarle county, Va.—d. Feb. 13, 1818, near Louisville, Ky., U.S.) Frontier military leader in the American Revolution. The brother of William Clark, he worked as a sur¬ veyor in Kentucky in the mid-1770s. During the Revolution he raised troops and defended the region against the British and Indians. He cap¬ tured settlements along the Mississippi River in the Old Northwest (Illi¬ nois), and in 1780 he helped defeat a British attempt to capture St. Louis. Appointed an Indian commissioner, he helped conclude a treaty with the Shawnee. In 1793 he became involved in the Citizen Genet Affair.

Clark, Helen (b. Feb. 26, 1950, Hamilton, N.Z.) New Zealand prime minister. In 1999 she became the first woman in New Zealand to hold the office of prime minister immediately following an election. She received bachelor’s (1971) and master’s (1974) degrees in political science at the University of Auckland, where she taught from 1973 to 1981.

Elected to Parliament in 1981, she held various cabinet portfolios beginning in 1987. She served as deputy prime minister in 1989-90 and was appointed to the Privy Council in 1990, both firsts for a woman in New Zealand. In 1993 she was elected head of the Labour Party, becoming the first woman in New Zealand to head a major party. In 1999, when the Labour Party was able to form a governing coalition, Clark was elected prime minister.

Clark, James H. (b. 1944, Plainview, Tex., U.S.) U.S. businessman. He dropped out of high school to join the navy. He received his Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Utah and taught at UC-Santa Cruz (1974-78) and Stanford (1979-82). He founded Silicon Graphics in

1981 and served as its chairman 1982-94, building it into a billion-dollar company that produced workstations for graphics-intensive applications. In 1994 he cofounded Netscape Communications, whose graphical inter¬ face Web browser revolutionized the Internet by making it easy to access Internet documents.

Clark (of Saltwood), Kenneth (Mackenzie) Clark, Baron (b.

July 13, 1903, London, Eng.—d. May 21, 1983, Hythe) British art his¬ torian and administrator. Born to a wealthy family, he studied at the Uni¬ versity of Oxford. After two years of study with Bernard Berenson in Florence, he served as keeper of fine art at Oxford’s Ashmolean Museum (1931-34) and director of London’s National Gallery (1934-39). He was involved in academic research and public service for most of his life. He published widely and became internationally known in 1969 as the writer and host of the BBC series Civilisation, a survey of European art from the Middle Ages to the 20th century.

Clark, Mark (Wayne) (b. May 1, 1896, Madison Barracks, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 17, 1984, Charleston, S.C.) U.S. army officer. After gradu¬ ating from West Point, he served in Europe in World War I. In 1942 he was appointed chief of staff of army ground forces. He commanded the U.S. landing at Salerno, Italy, in September 1943 and received the sur¬ render of the government of Pietro Badoglio. He then directed the hard- fought campaign to wrest the Italian peninsula from Axis control, taking Rome in June 1944 and receiving the surrender of the last German forces in northern Italy in May 1945. In the Korean War he commanded all UN troops (1952-53). After his retirement he served as president of The Cita¬ del military college (1954-66).

Clark, Tom orig. Thomas Campbell (b. Sept. 23, 1899, Dallas, Texas, U.S.—d. June 13, 1977, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jurist. He studied law at the University of Texas and entered private practice in Dallas. As a civil district attorney, he became involved in Democratic Party politics. At the U.S. Justice Department (1937-45), he worked primarily on anti¬ trust and war-fraud cases. As U.S. attorney general (1945) he gained a reputation for his vigorous antisubversive programs and his efforts to broaden the powers of Federal Bureau of Investigation. Appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States (1949), he retained his strong views on subversive activities but was also a frequent supporter of civil liberties. He resigned in 1967 when his son, Ramsey Clark (b. 1927), was appointed U.S. attorney general.

Clark, William (b. Aug. 1, 1770, Caroline county, Va.—d. Sept. 1, 1838, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.) U.S. explorer and soldier. The brother of George Rogers Clark, he joined the army and participated in Indian cam¬ paigns under Anthony Wayne. After resigning his commission, he was recruited by his former army friend Meriwether Lewis to help lead the first overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. Proving a daring and resourceful leader, he is credited with rescuing the famed Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-06) from disaster on more than one occasion. He also served as mapmaker and artist, portraying with meticulous detail animal life observed en route. Later, as governor of the Missouri Territory (1813— 21), he became known for his effective diplomacy with the Indians.

Clark Fork River, Montana and Idaho, U.S. Rising near Butte, Mont., it flows in an irregular course for about 300 mi (480 km) to enter Pend Oreille Lake in northern Idaho. Glacier National Park, wildlife preserves, and national forests are in the adjacent mountains, which are noted for their spectacular scenery.

Clarke, Arthur C(harles) (b. Dec. 16, 1917, Minehead, Somerset, Eng.) British science-fiction writer. He first published stories while in the Royal Air Force and, after earning a degree in physics and mathematics, wrote such novels as Childhood’s End (1953), Earthlight (1955), Ren¬ dezvous with Rama (1973), and The Fountains of Paradise (1979). He collaborated with Stanley Kubrick in making 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968, film and novel). Some of Clarke’s ideas have proved remarkably pre¬ scient. Since the 1950s he has lived in Sri Lanka. In 1997 he published 3001: The Final Odyssey. He was knighted in 2000.

class, social Group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status. The term was first widely used in the early 19th century, following the industrial and political revolutions of the late 18th century. The most influential early theory of class was that of Karl Marx, who focused on how one class controls and directs the process of pro¬ duction while other classes are the direct producers and the providers of services to the dominant class. The relations between the classes were

Helen Clark, 2005.

SEAN GALLUP/GETTY IMAGES

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

414 I class action ► Claudius

thus seen as antagonistic. Max Weber emphasized the importance of politi¬ cal power and social status or prestige in maintaining class distinctions. Despite controversies over the theory of class, there is general agreement on the characteristics of the classes in modern capitalist societies. In many cases the upper class has been distinguished by the possession of largely inherited wealth, while the working class has consisted mostly of manual labourers and semiskilled or unskilled workers, often in service indus¬ tries, who earn moderate or low wages and have little access to inherited wealth. The middle class includes the middle and upper levels of clerical workers, those engaged in technical and professional occupations, super¬ visors and managers, and such self-employed workers as small-scale shopkeepers, businesspeople, and farmers. There is also often an urban substratum of permanently jobless and underemployed workers termed the “underclass.” See also bourgeoisie.

class action In law, an action in which a representative plaintiff sues or a representative defendant is sued on behalf of a class of plaintiffs or defendants who have the same interests in the litigation as their repre¬ sentative and whose rights or liabilities can be better determined as a group than in a series of individual suits. Class-action suits that received national attention in the U.S. include a suit brought against manufactur¬ ers of Agent Orange by Vietnam veterans exposed to the herbicide (settled in 1984) and a suit concerning the effects of passive smoking brought against tobacco firms (settled in 1997).

Classical architecture Architecture of ancient Greece and Rome, especially from the 5 th century bc in Greece to the 3rd century ad in Rome, that emphasized the column and pediment. Greek architecture was based chiefly on the post-and-beam system, with columns carrying the load. Timber construction was superseded by construction in marble and stone. The column, a unit human in scale, was used as a module for all of a tem¬ ple’s proportions. The Doric order, probably the earliest, remained the favorite of the Greek mainland and western colonies. The Ionic order developed in eastern Greece; on the mainland, it was used chiefly for smaller temples and interiors. The greatest Greek architectural achieve¬ ment was the Athens acropolis. By the late 5th century bc, the orders were applied to such structures as stoas and theaters. The Hellenistic Age pro¬ duced more elaborate and richly decorated architecture, with often colos¬ sal buildings. Many of the great buildings were secular rather than religious, and the Ionic and especially the newer Corinthian orders were widely used. The Romans used the Greek orders and added two new ones (Tuscan and Composite); the Corinthian was by far the most popular. Roman architects used columns not only as functional bearing elements, but also as applied (engaged) decoration. Though rigidly adhering to sym¬ metry, the Romans used a variety of spatial forms. Whereas Greek temples were isolated and almost always faced east-west, Roman temples were oriented with respect to other buildings. Roman columns carried arches as well as entablatures, permitting greater spatial freedom. The discovery of concrete enormously facilitated construction using the arch, vault, and dome, as in the Pantheon. Other public buildings included basilicas, baths (see thermae), amphitheaters, and triumphal arches. Classical architecture may also refer to architecture of later periods that employs Greek or Roman forms.

classical economics School of economic thought largely centred in Britain that originated with Adam Smith and reached maturity in the works of David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill. The theories of the classical school were mainly concerned with the dynamics of economic growth. Reacting against mercantilism, classical economics emphasized economic freedom. It stressed ideas such as laissez-faire and free competition. Many of the fundamental principles of classical economics were set forth in Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776), in which he argued that a nation’s wealth was greatest when its citizens pursued their own self-interest. Neoclassical economists such as Alfred Marshall showed that the forces of supply and demand would ration economic resources to their most effective uses. Smith’s ideas were elaborated and refined by Ricardo, who formulated the principle that the price of goods produced and sold under competitive conditions tends to be proportionate to the labour costs incurred in pro¬ ducing them. Mill’s Principles of Political Economy (1848) gave the ideas greater currency by relating them to contemporary social conditions. Among those who have modified classical economics to reach very dif¬ ferent conclusions are Karl AAarx and John Maynard Keynes.

Classicism In the arts, the principles, historical tradition, aesthetic atti¬ tudes, or style of the art of ancient Greece and Rome. The term may refer either to work produced in antiquity or to later works inspired by those

of antiquity; the term Neoclassicism usually refers to art produced later but inspired by antiquity. More broadly, Classicism refers to the adher¬ ence to virtues regarded as characteristic of Classicism or as universally and enduringly valid, including formal elegance and correctness, simplic¬ ity, dignity, restraint, order, and proportion. Classicism is often opposed to Romanticism. Periods of Classicism in literature, music, and the visual arts have generally coincided.

Classicism and Neoclassicism Art-historical tradition or aesthetic attitudes based on the art of ancient Greece and Rome. “Classicism” refers to the art produced in antiquity or to later art inspired by that of antiq¬ uity; “Neoclassicism” refers to art inspired by that of antiquity and thus is contained within the broader meaning of “Classicism.” Classicism is traditionally characterized by harmony, clarity, restraint, universality, and idealism. In the visual arts, Classicism has generally denoted a preference for line over colour, straight lines over curves, and the general over the particular. The Italian Renaissance was the first period of thorough Clas¬ sicism after antiquity. Neoclassicism became the dominant aesthetic movement in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as prac¬ ticed by Antonio Canova and Jacques- Louis David. It bred a reaction in favour of subjective feeling, longing for the sublime, and a taste for the bizarre that came to be termed Romanticism. Recurring alternations between Classical and non-Classical ideals have often characterized West¬ ern aesthetics. See also Classical architecture.

Claude Lorrain Vklod-lo-'ra n \orig. Claude Gellee (b. c. 1600, Cha- magne, France—d. Nov. 23, 1682, Rome) French painter. Born in the duchy of Lorraine, he went to Rome as a youth, and there trained with the landscape and fresco painter Agostino Tassi and encountered the work of Nicolas Poussin. He became known as the master of the ideal land¬ scape, a view of nature more beautiful and harmonious than nature itself; his landscapes and coastal scenes contain architectural fragments and fig¬ ures. His reputation is based particularly on his sensitivity to the tonal values of light and atmosphere. By the 1630s he was well known and successful, with illustrious patrons among the French and Italian aristoc¬ racy. His work influenced the Dutch painters in Rome in the 1630s and ’40s, as well as the entire course of European landscape painting. Some 250 paintings and over 1,000 drawings by him survive.

Claudel Vklo-'delV Camille (-Rosalie) (b. Dec. 8, 1864, Villeneuve- sur-Fere, Fr.—d. Oct. 19, 1943, Montdevergues asylum, Montfavet) French sculptor. She was educated with her brother, Paul Claudel, and by her teens she was a skilled sculptor. In 1881 she moved with her family to Paris and entered the Colarossi Academy. The following year she met the renowned sculptor Auguste Rodin; she is best known today as his stu¬ dent, collaborator, model, and mistress. She contributed whole figures and parts of figures to Rodin’s projects, particularly The Gates of Hell (1880— 1900). Claudel exhibited her own work successfully at the official salons and in galleries, but she also destroyed many pieces. In 1913, still dis¬ traught from her break with Rodin in 1898, she was committed to a men¬ tal institution, and from 1914 until her death she lived in a rest home.

Claudel \klo-'del\, Paul (-Louis-Charles-Marie) (b. Aug. 6, 1868, Villeneuve-sur-Fere, France—d. Feb. 23, 1955, Paris) French poet, play¬ wright, and diplomat. He converted to Catholicism at age 18. His brilliant diplomatic career began in 1892, and he eventually served as ambassa¬ dor to Japan (1921-27) and the U.S. (1927—33). At the same time he pur¬ sued a literary career, expressing in poetry and drama his conception of the grand design of creation. He reached his largest audience through plays such as Break of Noon (1906), The Hostage (1911), Tidings Brought to Mary (1912), and his masterpiece, The Satin Slipper (1929); recurring themes in these works are human and divine love and the search for sal¬ vation. He wrote the librettos for Darius Milhaud’s opera Christopher Columbus (1930) and Arthur Honegger’s oratorio Joan of Arc (1938). His best-known poetic work is the confessional Five Great Odes (1910).

Claudius in full Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Ger- manicus orig. Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus (b. Aug. 1, 10 bc, Lugdunum [Lyon], Gaul— d. Oct. 13, ad 54) Roman emperor (ad 41-54). Nephew of Tiberius, Claudius became emperor unexpectedly after Caligula was murdered. Sickly, clumsy, unattractive, and scholarly, he wrote several histories, none of which survive. He was ruthless toward individual senators and the equites (see eques) and tended to disfavour the upper classes but catered to the freedmen. The invasion of Britain in 43 was part of his general expansion of frontiers; he also annexed Mauret¬ ania in northern Africa, Lycia in Asia Minor, and Thrace, and he made

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Claudius Caecus ► Clayton-Bulwer Treaty I 415

Judaea a province. He encouraged urbanization, spent lavishly on pub¬ lic works, and extended Roman citi¬ zenship throughout the empire.

Having executed his scheming third wife, Valeria Messalina, in 48, he married his niece Agrippina the Younger. She pressured Claudius into naming her son Lucius (later Nero) heir instead of his own son Britannicus. Claudius may have been poisoned by Agrippina.

Claudius Caecus Yse-kosV Appius (fl. 3rd century bc) Roman statesman and legal reformer.

Elected censor, Appius extended the rights of the sons of freedmen and the landless. He completed the Aqua Appia, Rome’s first aqueduct, and started construction of the Appian Way. He was consul in 307, censor a second time in 296, and praetor in 295. By publishing the legis actiones (“methods of legal practice”) and lists of court days, he provided greater public access to the legal system. In his old age he convinced the Senate to drive the Epirite king Pyrrhus from southern Italy.

Claudius I, detail of a bust found near Priverno; in the Vatican Museums.

AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK

Clausewitz Vklau-z9-,vits\, Carl (Philipp Gottlieb) von (b. June 1, 1780, Burg, near Magdeburg,

Prussia—d. Nov. 16, 1831, Breslau,

Silesia) Prussian general and author.

Born to a poor middle-class profes¬ sional family, he joined the Prussian army at age 12 and entered the War College in Berlin in 1801. After serv¬ ing with distinction in the Napoleonic Wars, he became a general and was appointed director of the War College (1818). His major work on strategy,

On War (1832-37), analyzed the workings of military genius by isolat¬ ing the factors that decide success in war. Rather than producing a rigid system of strategy, he emphasized the necessity of a critical approach to strategic problems. He asserted that war is a tool for achieving political aims rather than an end in itself

(“merely the continuation of policy by other means”) and argued that defensive warfare is both militarily and politically the stronger position. He also advocated the concept of total war. Published posthumously. On War had a profound influence on modern military strategy.

Carl von Clausewitz, lithograph by Franz Michelis after an oil painting by Wilhelm Wach, 1830.

COURTESY OF THE STAATSBIBUOTHEK, WEST BERUN

clavichord Early keyboard instrument, an important forerunner of the piano. It flourished c. 1400-1800, especially in Germany. It is usually rectangular, with the keyboard inset. The strings are struck by metal tan¬ gents, rather than plucked as on the harpsichord. The tangent becomes the endpoint of the vibrating string; thus the point where it strikes determines the pitch. So-called fretted clavichords permit more than one tangent to strike a single pair of strings (which somewhat limits the notes that can be sounded simultaneously); unfretted clavichords use only one tangent per pair of strings. The player’s touch can produce dynamic variation; variation in finger pressure can even produce vibrato. Its tone is silvery and soft, best suited for intimate music.

clay Soil particles with diameters less than 0.005 mm; also a material composed essentially of clay particles (see clay mineral). In soils, clays provide the environment for almost all plant growth. The use of clay in pottery making predates recorded human history. As building materials, clay bricks (baked and as adobe) have been used in construction since ear¬ liest times. Kaolin, or china clay, is required for the finer grades of ceramic materials; used for paper coating and filler, it gives the paper a gloss, per¬ mitting high-quality reproduction, and increases paper opacity. Clay mate¬ rials have many uses in engineering; earth dams are made impermeable

Clay, Lucius D(uBignon) (b. April 23, 1897, Marietta, Ga., U.S.—d. April 16, 1978, Cape Cod, Mass.) U.S. army officer. After graduating from West Point, he served in various military engineering assignments. In World War II he directed the U.S. Army procurement program (1942—44). In 1945 he was appointed deputy military governor of the U.S. zone of occupation in defeated Germany. Two years later he was elevated to com¬ mander in chief of U.S. forces in Europe and military governor of the U.S. zone. In 1948-49 he organized the successful Allied airlift of food and supplies into Berlin during the Soviet blockade of that city (see Ber¬ lin blockade and airlift). After retiring in 1949, he entered private business and became an unofficial adviser to Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower.

clay mineral Any of a group of important hydrous aluminum silicates with a layered structure and very small (less than 0.005 mm or micro¬ scopic) particle size. They are usually the products of weathering. Clay minerals occur widely in such sedimentary rocks as mudstones and shales, in marine sediments, and in soils. Different geologic environments pro¬ duce different clay minerals from the same parent rock. They are used in the petroleum industry (as drilling muds and as catalysts in refining) and in the processing of vegetable and mineral oils (as decolorizing agents).

Clayton, John Middleton (b. July 24, 1796, Dagsboro, Del., U.S.—d. Nov. 9, 1856, Dover, Del.) U.S. politician. He served as Dela¬ ware’s secretary of state (1826-28) and chief justice (1837). He also rep¬ resented Delaware in the U.S. Senate (1829-36, 1845-49). As U.S. secretary of state (1849-50) under Pres. Zachary Taylor, he negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) Compromise agreement designed to harmonize contending British and U.S. interests in Central America. The treaty provided that the two countries jointly control and protect what was to become the Panama Canal. The Clayton-Bulwer treaty was superseded

to water by a core of clay, and water loss in canals may be reduced by lining the bottom with clay (called puddling). The essential raw materi¬ als of Portland cement include clays.

Clay, Cassius See Muhammad Au

Clay, Cassius Marcellus (b. Oct. 19, 1810, Madison county, Ky., U.S.—d. July 22, 1903, Whitehall, Ky.) U.S. abolitionist and politician. The son of a slaveholder and a relative of Henry Clay, he was strongly influenced by the abolitionist ideas of William Lloyd Garrison. In 1845 he founded the antislavery publication True American in Lexington, Ky., but he was forced by opponents to move it to Cincinnati, Ohio, and then to Louisville, Ky., where it was renamed The Examiner. He helped found the Republican Party in 1854. As U.S. minister to Russia (1861-62, 1863— 69), he helped negotiate the Alaska Purchase.

Clay, Henry (b. April 12, 1777, Hanover county, Va., U.S.—d. June 29, 1852, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He practiced law from 1797 in Virginia and then in Ken¬ tucky, where he served in the state legislature (1803-09). He was elected to the U.S. House of Repre¬ sentatives (1811-14, 1815-21,

1823-25); as House speaker (1811—

14), he was among those who pro¬ pelled the U.S. into the War of 1812. He supported a national eco¬ nomic policy of protective tariffs, known as the American System, a national bank, and improvements to internal transportation. His support of the Missouri Compromise earned him the nicknames “The Great Pacificator” and “The Great Com¬ promiser.” After his bid for the presi¬ dency in 1824 fell short, Clay threw

his support to John Quincy Adams, _

who made him his secretary of state

(1825-29). He served in the U.S. Senate (1806-07, 1810-11, and 1831- 42), where he supported the compromise tariff of 1833. He was the National Republican Party candidate for president in 1832 and the Whig Party candidate in 1844. In his last Senate term (1849-52) he argued strongly for passage of the Compromise of 1850.

Henry Clay, by Frederick and William Langenheim, 1850.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

416 I Clazomenae ► Clement V

in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, under which the British govern¬ ment agreed to allow the U.S. to construct and control the canal.