Britannica Concise 2005

(Aug.-Sept.) Sh. 4

of Ganesha")

favorite in Maharashtra

Ashvina (Sept.-Oct.)

Durga-puja ("homage

special to Bengal, in honor of

Sh. 7-10

to Durga")

the goddess Durga

Ashvina Sh. 7-10

Dashahra ("ten days"), or Dussera

celebrating Rama's victory over Ravana; traditional beginning of the warring season

Ashvina Sh. 15

Lakshmipuja ("homage to Lakshmi")

date on which commercial books are closed, and new annual records begun

Karttika (Oct.-Nov.)

Dipavali, Divali ("strings or lights")

festival of lights, when light is

K. 15 and Sh. 1

carried from the waning to the waxing fortnight

Margashirsa

Maha-shivaratri ("great

honors Shiva on the blackest

(Nov.-Dee.) K. 13

night of Shiva")

night of the month

Pausa (Dec.-Jan.)

Sh. 15

Magha (Jan.-Feb.)

Guru Nanak Jayanti

birthday of Nanak, founder of Sikhism

Phalguna (Feb.-Mar.)

Holi (name of a

fertility and role-changing

Sh. 14

demoness)

festival, scene of great teasing of superiors

Phalguna Sh. 15

Dolayatra ("swing festival")

scene of the famous hook¬ swinging rites of Orissa

Hindustan Name for India. It was historically applied to northern India, in contrast to the Deccan, or southern India. It included the region bounded on the north by the Himalayas and on the south by the Vindhya Mountains

Hindenburg

CULVER PICTURES

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878 I Hine ► Hiroshige

and Narmada River, comprising the Ganges River valley from the Punjab to Assam. The name was also applied to a small area comprising the upper basin of the Ganges.

Hine, Lewis Wickes (b. Sept. 26, 1874, Oshkosh, Wis., U.S.—d. Nov. 3, 1940, Hastings-on-Hudson, N.Y.) U.S. photographer. He was trained as a sociologist. In 1904 he began to photograph immigrants at Ellis Island and the tenements and sweatshops where they lived and worked. In 1911 he was hired by the National Child Labor Committee to record child labour conditions. Traveling throughout the East, he produced appalling pictures of exploited children. In World War I he worked as a photogra¬ pher with the Red Cross. On returning to New York City, he photographed the construction of the Empire State Building. For the rest of his life he pho¬ tographed government projects.

Hines, Earl (Kenneth) (b. Dec. 28, 1905, Duquesne, Pa., U.S.—d. April 22, 1983, Oakland, Calif.) U.S. pianist and bandleader who had a profound influence on the development of jazz piano. Known as “Fatha” Hines, he was a pianist of amazing technical command and tireless energy. Breaking with the stride tradition (in which regular two-beat left-hand rhythms accompany the melody in the right hand), he emulated the single¬ note instruments (e.g., trumpet) in creating melodic variations of the melody with the right hand. Hines led a successful Chicago-based big band from 1928 to 1948. He was influenced by Louis Armstrong, and the two performed together frequently throughout their careers; their recorded encounters from the late 1920s, particularly “Weather Bird,” are jazz clas¬ sics.

hip-hop See rap

Hipparchus or Hipparchos \hi-'par-kos\ (b. Nicaea, Bithynia—d. after 127 bc, Rhodes?) Greek astronomer and mathematician. He discov¬ ered the precession of the equinoxes (see equinoxes, precession of the), cal¬ culated the length of the year to within 6.5 minutes, compiled the first known star catalog, and made an early formulation of trigonometry. His observations were painstaking and extremely accurate. He rejected all astrology but also Sun-centred views of the universe; his views had a pro¬ found influence on Ptolemy. His star catalog logged the positions of the stars in terms of celestial coordinates, listed about 850 stars, and specified their brightnesses by a system of six magnitudes similar to today’s. He adequately accounted for the irregularities in the Moon’s motion that are due to its elliptical orbit. His main contribution to geography was to apply rigorous mathematical principles to the determination of places on Earth’s surface, and he was the first to do so by specifying latitude and longitude.

Hippias (d. 490 bc) Tyrant of Athens (528/527-510). He succeeded his father, Peisistratus, as tyrant. Hippias was a patron of poets and craftsmen, and Athens prospered under his rule, but he became repressive after the assassination of his brother Hipparchus (514). He was overthrown by the Spartans (510) and went into exile in Asia Minor. He went with the Per¬ sians to attack the Athenians, and it was he who advised Darius I in 490 to land at Marathon, which resulted in a major Persian defeat.

Hippocrates \hi-'pa-kr3-,tez\ (b. c. 460 bc, island of Cos, Greece—d. c. 377, Larissa, Thessaly) Greek physician regarded as the father of medicine. Plato, his contemporary, referred to him twice and implied that he was famous as a physician.

Meno, a pupil of Aristotle, stated that Hippocrates believed that disease was caused by the excreted vapours of undigested food. His philosophy was to see the body as a whole. He apparently traveled widely in Greece and Asia Minor, practicing and teaching. The “Hippocratic Collec¬ tion” supposedly belonged to the library of a medical school (probably at Cos) and then to the Ijbrary of Alexandria. An unknown proportion of the 60 or so surviving manuscripts—the earliest dating from the 10th century ad —are actu¬

ally by Hippocrates. The collection deals with anatomy, clinical subjects, diseases of women and children, prognosis, treatment, surgery, and medi¬ cal ethics. The Hippocratic Oath (not actually written by Hippocrates), also part of the Hippocratic Collection, is divided into two major sections, the first setting out the physician’s obligations to his students and his pupils’ duties to him, the second pledging him to prescribe only benefi¬ cial treatments, refrain from causing harm or hurt, and live an exemplary life.

hippopotamus Huge amphibious African mammal {Hippopotamus amphibius). Once found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, it is now restricted to parts of eastern and southeastern Africa. It has a barrel-shaped body, an enormous mouth, short legs, and four toes on each foot. It com¬ monly reaches a length of 11.5 ft (3.5 m), a height of 5 ft (1.5 m) at the shoulder, and a weight of 7,000 lb (3,200 kg). The skin is very thick, nearly hairless, and grayish brown above, lighter and pinkish below. The ears and nostrils protrude above water when the rest of the body is sub¬ merged. Hippopotamuses live near rivers, lakes, swamps, or other per¬ manent bodies of water, usually in groups of 7 to 15. During the day they sleep and rest in or near the water. At night they go on land to feed on grasses, which they crop with their hard-edged lips. In water they can swim fast, walk along the bottom, and remain submerged (with ears and nostrils closed) for five minutes or more. The rare pygmy hippopotamus {Hexaprotodon liberiensis) is the only other species of the family Hippo- potamidae. Living along streams and in wet forests and swamps of West Africa, it is about the size of a domestic pig.

HIrah Yhir-oV Al- Ancient city, Middle East. Located near present-day Al-Kufah in south-central Iraq, in the 5th-6th centuries ad it was the capital of the Lakhmid dynasty, which itself was subordinate to the Sasa- NlAN dynasty of Persia. The city was a diplomatic, political, and military centre and an important station on the Persia-Arabia caravan route. Tra¬ dition holds that the Arabic script was developed there. Also the seat of a bishopric for Nestorian Christians, it promoted Christian monotheism in the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Hlrah began to decline following the collapse of the Lakhmids early in the 7th century, and in 633 the city was taken by the Muslims.

Hirata Atsutane \,he- , ra-ta- 1 a-tsu- , ta-na\ (b. Sept. 25, 1776, Akita, Japan—d. Oct. 4, 1843, Akita) Leader of the Japanese Restoration Shinto school. He settled in Edo (modern Tokyo) at age 20 and became a dis¬ ciple of Motoori Norinaga. Hirata sought to develop a Shinto theologi¬ cal system offering principles for social and political action. He proclaimed the natural superiority of Japan and championed the imperial line. For criticizing the Tokugawa shogunate (see Tokugawa period), which had reduced the emperor to a powerless symbol, he was punished by being confined to his birthplace for the rest of his life. His theories helped bring about the shogunate’s overthrow, and he influenced 20th-century Shinto and Japanese nationalism.

Hirohito \,hir-o-'he-to\ or Showa \'sho-o\ emperor (b. April 29, 1901, Tokyo, Japan—d. Jan. 7, 1989, Tokyo) Longest-reigning of Japan’s monarchs (1926-89). His rule coincided with Japan’s 20th-century mili¬ tarism and its aggression against China and Southeast Asia and in the Pacific Ocean during World War II. Though the Meiji Constitution invested the emperor with supreme authority, in practice he merely ratified the policies formulated by his ministers and advisers. Historians have debated whether Hirohito could have diverted Japan from its militaristic path and what responsibility he should bear for the actions of the government and military during the war. In August 1945 he broke the precedent of impe¬ rial silence when he made a national radio broadcast to announce Japan’s surrender, and in 1946 he made a second broadcast to repudiate the tra¬ ditional quasi-divine status of Japan’s emperors. See also Showa period.

Hiroshige V.hir-o-'she-ga-'an-doV in full Ando Hiroshige known as Utagawa Hiroshige or Ichiyusai Hiroshige (b. 1797, Edo, Japan—d. Oct. 12, 1858, Edo) Japanese artist and master of the colour woodblock print. He became a pupil of the ukiyo-e master Utagawa Toy- okuni in Edo (now Tokyo) c. 1811. In 1833-34 a series of 55 landscape prints, Fifty-three Stages on the Tokaido, established him as one of the most popular ukiyo-e artists of all time. Demand for his figure-with- landscape designs became so great that overproduction diminished their quality. He produced more than 5,000 prints, and 10,000 copies were made from some of his woodcuts. His genius was first recognized in the West by the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists, on whom he exerted much influence. See also Edo culture.

Hippocrates, Roman bust copied from a Greek original, c. 3rd century bc; in the collection of the Antichita Di Ostia, Italy

COURTESY OF THE SOPRINTENDENZA ALLE ANTICHITA DI OSTIA, ITALY

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hiroshima ► history I 879

Hiroshima Mio-'ro-sho-mo, .hir-s-'she-moX City (pop., 2002 est.: 1,113,786), southwestern Honshu,

Japan. Founded as a castle town in the 16th century, it was from 1868 a military centre. In 1945 it became the first city ever to be struck by an atomic bomb, dropped by the U.S. in the last days of World War II.

Rebuilding began in 1950, and Hiroshima is now the largest indus¬ trial city in the region. It has become a spiritual centre of the peace move¬ ment to ban nuclear weapons; Peace Memorial Park is dedicated to those killed by the bomb, and Atomic Bomb Dome is the ruin of the only building to survive the blast.

Hirsch \'hirsh\, Samson Raphael (b. June 20, 1808,

Hamburg—d. Dec. 31, 1888,

Frankfurt-on-Main, Ger.) German Jewish scholar. He served as rabbi in Oldenburg, Emden, Nikolsburg, and Frankfurt am Main. In his Nineteen Letters of Ben Uziel (1836), he expounded his system of Neo-Orthodoxy, which helped make Orthodox Judaism viable in 19th-century Germany. He advocated blending strict schooling in the Torah with modern secular education, and he argued that Orthodox Jews should separate from the larger Jewish community in defense of their traditions. His many works include commentaries on the Pentateuch and an Orthodox textbook on Judaism.

Hirschfeld, Al(bert) (b. June 21, 1903, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. Jan. 20, 2003, New York, N.Y.) U.S. caricaturist. He lived mostly in New York City. He studied art in Europe and traveled in East Asia, where Japanese and Javanese art influenced his graphic style. He was especially known for his stylish caricatures in the New York Times over many decades (beginning 1929) portraying show-business personalities, in which read¬ ers enjoyed hunting for the name of his daughter, Nina. Hirschfeld also illustrated many books and produced watercolours, lithographs, etchings, and sculptures.

His \'his\, Wilhelm (b. Dec. 29, 1863, Basel, Switz.—d. Nov. 10, 1934, Wiesental) Swiss cardiologist. His father, Wilhelm His (1831-1904), first realized that each nerve fibre stems from a single neuron and invented the microtome, a device used to slice thin tissue sections for microscopic examination. The younger His discovered (1893) the specialized muscle fibres (bundle of His) running along the septum between the heart’s left and right chambers. He found that they help communicate a single rhythm of contraction to all parts of the heart, and he was one of the first to rec¬ ognize that the heartbeat originates in individual cells of heart muscle.

Hispaniola \,his-p3n-'yo-l9\ Spanish Espanola \,es-pa-'nyo-la\ Island, central West Indies. The second-largest West Indian island, it lies east of Cuba. It is divided into Haiti to the west and the Dominican Republic to the east. The island is some 400 mi (650 km) long and 150 mi (241 km) wide at its widest point. Christopher Columbus landed there in 1492. The Spanish wiped out the natives and settled the island with African slaves. In 1795 Spain ceded the eastern two-thirds of the island to France. The slaves rebelled in the late 18th century; led by Toussaint- Louverture and J.-J. Dessalines, they formed the independent Republic of Haiti (1804) on the western part of the island. The eastern part was briefly reunited with Spain; its road to eventual independence as the Dominican Republic (1844) was initially blocked by Haitian dominance.

Hiss, Alger (b. Nov. 11, 1904, Baltimore, Md., U.S.—d. Nov. 15, 1996, New York, N.Y.) U.S. government official. He attended Harvard Law School and clerked for Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. He worked at the U.S. State Department in the 1930s, attended the Yalta Conference (1945) as an adviser to Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, was briefly secretary-general of the fledgling UN, and served as head of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1946^-9). In 1948 Whittaker Chambers testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) that Hiss had been a fellow member of a communist spy ring in the 1930s. When Chambers repeated the charge in public, unprotected by congressional

immunity, Hiss sued him for slander. In a federal grand-jury investigation of the case, both Chambers and Hiss testified; Hiss was later indicted on two charges of perjury. His first trial (1949) ended with a hung jury; at his second trial (1950) he was found guilty. He was released from jail in 1954, still protesting his innocence. In 1996 the release of secret Soviet cables intercepted by U.S. intelligence during World War II provided strong evidence of Hiss’s guilt. The Hiss case seemed to lend substance to charges by Sen. Joseph McCarthy of communist infiltration in the State Department; it also brought national attention to Richard Nixon, whose hostile questioning of Hiss during the HUAC hearings did much to estab¬ lish his reputation as a fervent anticommunist.

histamine \ l his-t3- l men\ Organic compound found in nearly all animal tissues, in microorganisms, and in some plants. Its release stimulates many smooth muscles to contract, such as those in the gastrointestinal tract, uterus, and the bronchi. It causes fine blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable, causing the runny nose, watery eyes, and tissue swell¬ ing of hay fever and some other allergies. Histamine appears to have a physiological role in the body’s defenses against a hostile environment, since it may be released when the body is subjected to trauma, infection, or some drugs. Under extreme circumstances, the effects of histamine lead to exaggerated responses with distressing results, as may occur in some allergic conditions (see anaphylaxis). Stinging nettles and certain insect venoms contain histamine. In humans, histamine is formed by removal of a carboxyl group from histidine. Its effects are counteracted by antihista¬ mines.

histidine Vhis-t3-,den\ One of the essential amino acids, first isolated in 1896. It occurs abundantly in hemoglobin and can be isolated from blood cells. It is used in medicine and biochemical research and as a dietary supplement and feed additive.

histogram or bar graph Graph using vertical or horizontal bars whose lengths indicate quantities. Along with the pie chart, the histogram is the most common format for representing statistical data. Its advantage is that it not only clearly shows the largest and smallest categories but gives an immediate impression of the distribution of the data. In fact, a histogram is a representation of a frequency distribution.

histology \his-'ta-l3-je\ Branch of biology concerned with the compo¬ sition and structure of plant and animal tissues in relation to their spe¬ cialized functions. Its aim is to determine how tissues are organized at all structural levels, from cells and intercellular substances to organs. His¬ tologists examine extremely thin slices of human tissue under micro¬ scopes, using dye to increase the contrast between cellular components.

histone Any of a class of rather simple proteins occurring in cell nuclei and in combination with DNA to form nucleoproteins. They can be obtained from both plants and animals. Unlike most proteins, they dis¬ solve readily in water. They were discovered c. 1884.

historical school of economics See German historical school of economics

historiography Mii-.stor-e-'a-gro-feV Writing of history, especially that based on the critical examination of sources and the synthesis of chosen particulars from those sources into a narrative that will stand the test of critical methods. Two major tendencies in history writing are evident from the beginnings of the Western tradition: the concept of historiography as the accumulation of records and the concept of history as storytelling, filled with explanations of cause and effect. In the 5th century bc the Greek historians Herodotus and, later, Thucydides emphasized firsthand inquiry in their efforts to impose a narrative on contemporary events. The dominance of Christian historiography by the 4th century introduced the idea of world history as a result of divine intervention in human affairs, an idea that prevailed throughout the Middle Ages in the work of such historians as Bede. Humanism and the gradual secularization of critical thought influ¬ enced early modern European historiography. The 19th and 20th centu¬ ries saw the development of modem methods of historical investigation based on the use of primary source materials. Modern historians, aiming for a fuller picture of the past, have tried to reconstruct a record of ordi¬ nary human activities and practices; the French Annales school has been influential in this respect.

history, philosophy of Branch of philosophy concerned with ques¬ tions about the meaningfulness of history and the nature of historical explanation. Philosophy of history in the traditional sense is conceived to be a first-order inquiry, its subject matter being the historical process as

Cenotaph in Peace Memorial Park, Hiroshima, Japan; Atomic Bomb Dome is visible through the arch.

BOB GLAZE—ARTSTREET

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

880 I history play ► Hmong-Mien

a whole and its broad aim being to provide an overall elucidation of its course. As a second-order inquiry, philosophy of history focuses on the methods by which practicing historians treat the human past. The former, often referred to as speculative philosophy of history, has had a long and varied career; the latter, known as critical or analytical philosophy of his¬ tory, rose to prominence only in the 20th century.

history play See chronicle play

Hitchcock, Sir Alfred (b. Aug. 13, 1899, London, Eng.—d. April 29, 1980, Bel Air, Calif., U.S.) British-born film director. He worked in the London office of a U.S. film company from 1920 and was promoted to director in 1925. His film The Lodger (1926) concerned an ordinary per¬ son caught in extraordinary events, a theme that was to recur in many of his films. Fascinated with voyeurism and crime, he proved himself a mas¬ ter of suspense with The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934; remade 1956), The 39 Steps (1935), and The Lady Vanishes (1938). His first U.S. film, Rebecca (1940), was a tense psychological drama. His virtuosity was evi¬ dent in his later films Lifeboat (1944), Spellbound (1945), Notorious (1946), Rear Window (1954), Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960), The Birds (1963), and Frenzy (1972).

Hitchings, George Herbert (b. April 18, 1905, Hoquiam, Wash., U.S.—d. Feb. 27,1998, Chapel Hill, N.C.) U.S. pharmacologist. He earned a Ph.D. from Harvard University. Over nearly 40 years, he and Gertrude Elion designed a variety of new drugs that work by interfering with repli¬ cation or other vital functions of specific disease-causing agents; these drugs include those to treat leukemia, severe rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases (also useful for suppressing rejection after organ transplants), gout, malaria, urinary and respiratory-tract infections, and herpes simplex. In 1988 he shared a Nobel Prize with Elion and James Black.

Hitler, Adolf (b. April 20, 1889, Braunau am Inn, Austria—d. April 30, 1945, Berlin, Ger.) Dictator of Nazi Germany (1933^-5). As a soldier in the German army in World War I, he was wounded and gassed. In 1920 he became head of propaganda for the renamed National Socialists (Nazi Party) and in 1921 party leader. He set out to create a mass movement, using unrelenting propaganda. The party’s rapid growth climaxed in the Beer Hall Putsch (1923), for which he served nine months in prison; there he started to write his virulent autobiography, Mein Kampf. Believing that “races” were unequal and that this was part of the natural order, he exalted the “Aryan race” while propounding anti-Semitism, anticommunism, and extreme German nationalism. The economic slump of 1929 facilitated Hitler’s rise to power. In the Reichstag elections of 1930 the Nazis became the country’s second largest party and in 1932 the largest. Hitler ran for president in 1932 and lost but entered into intrigues to gain power, and in 1933 Paul von Hindenburg invited him to be chancellor. Adopting the title of Ftihrer (“Leader”), Hitler gained dictatorial powers through the Enabling Act and suppressed opposition with assistance from Heinrich Him¬ mler and Joseph Goebbels. Hitler also began to enact anti-Jewish measures, which culminated in the Holocaust. His aggressive foreign policy led to the signing of the Munich Agreement with France, Britain, and Italy, which permitted German annexation of Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland. He became allied with Benito Mussolini in the Rome-Berlin Axis. The German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939) enabled him to invade Poland, precipitating World War II. As defeat grew imminent in 1945, he married Eva Braun in an underground bunker in Berlin, and the next day they committed suicide.

Hitler-Stalin Pact See German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact

Hitler Youth German Hitler-Jugend \,yii-gent\ Organization set up by Adolf Hitler in 1933 for educating and training male youths aged 13-18 in Nazi principles. Under the leadership of Baldur von Schirach (1907- 1974), by 1935 it included almost 60% of all German boys, and by 1936 it became a state agency that all young “Aryan” Germans were expected to join. The youths lived a Spartan life of dedication, fellowship, and Nazi conformity, with little parental guidance. A parallel organization, the League of German Girls, trained girls for domestic duties and mother¬ hood.

Hito-no-michi \he- , to-,no-'me-che\ Japanese religious sect founded by Miki Tokuharu (1871-1938). It was based on an earlier religious move¬ ment founded by Kanada Tokumitsu (1863-1919), who taught that the suf¬ ferings of his followers could be transferred to him by divine mediation so that he could endure their troubles vicariously. Though compelled by the government to ally itself with Shinto, Hito-no-michi continued its unortho¬

dox teachings and gathered a following of more than 600,000 by 1934. It was ordered disbanded in 1937; Tokuharu and his son Miki Tokuchika were jailed, and Tokuharu died the next year. In 1945 Miki Tokuchika was released, and he revived the sect under the name PL Kyodan.

Hitomaro See Kakinomoto no Hitomaro

Hittite \'hi-,tlt\ Any member of an Indo-European people whose empire (Old Kingdom c. 1700-1500 bc, New Kingdom c. 1400-1180 bc) was centred in Anatolia and northern Syria. Old Kingdom records detail Hit¬ tite territorial expansion; New Kingdom documents contain accounts of the Battle of Kadesh, one of the greatest conflicts of the ancient world, which was fought against Egypt. Hittite kings had absolute power and were viewed as deputies of the gods, at death becoming gods themselves. Hittite society was feudal and agrarian; iron-working technology was developed. The kingdom fell abruptly, possibly because of large-scale migrations of Sea Peoples and Phrygians into parts of the empire.

HIV in full human immunodeficiency virus Retrovirus associated with AIDS. HIV attacks and gradually destroys the immune system, leaving the host unprotected against infection. It cannot be spread through casual contact but instead is contracted mainly through exposure to blood and blood products (e.g., by sharing hypodermic needles or by accidental needle sticks), semen and female genital secretions, or breast milk. A pregnant woman can pass the virus to her fetus across the placenta. The virus first multiplies in lymph nodes near the site of infection. Once it spreads through the body, usually about 10 years later, symptoms appear, marking the onset of AIDS. Multidrug “cocktails” can delay onset, but missing doses can lead to drug resistance. Like other viruses, HIV needs a host cell to multiply. It attacks helper T cells and can infect other cells. A rapid mutation rate helps it foil both the immune system and treatment attempts. No vaccine or cure exists. Abstinence from sex, use of condoms or other means to prevent sexual transmission of the disease, and avoid¬ ance of needle sharing have reduced infection rates in some areas.

hives or urticaria X.ort-o-'kar-e-oV Allergic skin reaction in which slightly raised, flat-topped, very itchy swellings appear suddenly. The acute form, probably most often caused by food allergies, subsides in 6-24 hours, but the chronic form, believed to be due to emotional and mental stress, lasts much longer. Acute hives may also be triggered by drugs, especially penicillin, inhaled allergens or toxins, or diseases. Treatment involves identifying and avoiding the allergen; epinephrine and antihista¬ mines may help the acute skin symptoms.

Hiwassee \hl-'wa-se\ River River, southeastern U.S. Rising in the Blue Ridge in northern Georgia, it flows 132 mi (213 km) into North Carolina and southeastern Tennessee to join the Tennessee River at the Chickamauga Reservoir. It has three major Tennessee Valley Authority dams. The endan¬ gered snail darter was transplanted to the Hiwassee in the 1970s.

Hizbullah See Hezbollah

HMO See HEALTH MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION

Hmong Vhm6q\ or Miao \me-'au\ Mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand who speak Hmong-Mien languages. There are also emigre communities in the U.S. Agriculture is the chief means of subsistence for the Hmong throughout their traditional territo¬ ries; they grow corn (maize) and rice and raise opium as a cash crop. Most venerate spirits, demons, and ancestral ghosts, and animal sacrifice is widespread. Households are multigenerational. In China many Hmong follow the Chinese practice of arranged marriage. Worldwide they num¬ ber about 9 million.

Hmong-Mien Vmsq-'myenV languages or Miao-Yao

\me-'au-'yau\ languages Language family of southern China, northern Vietnam, Laos, and northern Thailand, with more than nine million speak¬ ers. Hmong (Miao, Meo) has been divided into three dialect groups, West¬ ern, Central, and Northern. Beginning in the 18th century, groups of Western dialect speakers immigrated into northern Indochina. In the after- math of the Indochina wars that ended in 1975, many Hmong fled from Laos to Thailand. Some were eventually resettled in the U.S., which now has perhaps 150,000 Western dialect speakers. Mien (Yao) has three major dialects; the largest of which, also called Mien, accounts for about 85% of Mien speakers. Though these languages are structurally similar to other languages of the area, most notably Chinese, no genetic relationship between Hmong-Mien and any other language family has been demon¬ strated.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Ho Chi Minh ► Hobhouse I 881

Ho Chi Minh orig. Nguyen Sinh Cung (b. May 19, 1890, Hoang Tru, Viet.—d. Sept. 2,1969, Hanoi) President (1945-69) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). Son of a poor scholar, he was brought up in a rural village. In 1911 he found work on a French steamer and traveled the world, then spent six years in France, where he became a socialist. In 1923 he went to the Soviet Union; the next year he went to China, where he started organizing exiled Vietnamese. He founded the Indochina Communist Party in 1930 and its successor, the Viet Minh, in 1941. In 1945 Japan overran Indochina, overthrowing its French colonial rulers; when the Japanese surrendered to the Allies six months later, Ho and his Viet Minh forces seized the opportunity, occupied Hanoi, and pro¬ claimed Vietnamese independence. France refused to relinquish its former colony, and the First Indochina War broke out in 1946. Ho’s forces defeated the French in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu, after which the country was parti¬ tioned into North and South Vietnam. Ho, who ruled in the north, was soon embroiled with the U.S.-backed regime of Ngo Dinh Diem in the south in what became known as the Vietnam War; North Vietnamese forces pre¬ vailed over the south six years after Ho’s death.

Ho Chi Minh City formerly Saigon \'sl-,gan\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 4,549,000), southern Vietnam. It lies along the Saigon River north of the Mekong River delta. The Vietnamese first entered the region, then part of the kingdom of Cambodia, in the 17th century. In 1862 the area, includ¬ ing the town, was ceded to France. After World War II Vietnam declared its independence, but French troops seized control and the First Indo¬ china War began. The Geneva conference in 1954 divided the country, and Saigon became the capital of South Vietnam. In the Vietnam War, it was the headquarters for U.S. military operations; it was captured by North Vietnamese troops in 1975 and renamed for Ho Chi Minh. Rebuild¬ ing since the war has promoted its commercial importance.

Ho Chi Minh Trail Former trail system, extending from northern Viet¬ nam to southern Vietnam. It was opened in 1959 and used by North Viet¬ namese troops in the Vietnam War as the major military supply route. Starting south of Hanoi, the main trail traversed Laos and Cambodia on its way to South Vietnam and required more than a month’s march to travel. With underground support facilities, including hospitals and weap¬ ons caches, it was the main route for the invasion of South Vietnam in

Ho-fei See Hefei Ho-nan See Henan Ho-peh See Hebei Ho-shen See Heshen

Hoar, Ebenezer R(ockwood) (b. Feb. 21, 1816, Concord, Mass., U.S.—d. Jan. 31, 1895, Concord) U.S. politician. He graduated from Har¬ vard College (1835) and Harvard Law School (1839). His outspoken opposition to slavery soon made him a leading public figure in his home state. By the mid-1840s he was a member of the antislavery Whigs, or “Conscience Whigs,” in the Massachusetts state senate. Later he helped form the Free Soil and Republican parties in Massachusetts. He served on the Massachusetts state supreme court (1859-69), was briefly U.S. attorney general (1869-70), and was elected to the U.S. House of Rep¬ resentatives (1873-75).

Hoar, George Frisbie (b. Aug. 29, 1826, Concord, Mass., U.S.—d. Sept. 30, 1904, Worcester, Mass.) U.S. politician. He graduated from Harvard College (1846) and Harvard Law School (1849) and then went into private law practice in Worcester. He was an early supporter of the Free Soil Party in Massachusetts. With his brother, Ebenezer Hoar, and father, Samuel Hoar (1778-1856), he was instrumental in the formation of the Republican Party. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1869-77) and Senate (1877-1904). He championed civil-service reform, and he was an outspoken foe of the anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant American Protective Association.

Hoare, Sir Samuel (John Gurney), 2nd Baronet also called (from 1944) Viscount Templewood (of Chelsea) (b. Feb. 24, 1880, London, Eng.—d. May 7, 1959, London) British statesman. As sec¬ retary of state for India (1931-35), he had the immense task of developing and defending in debate the new Indian constitution and was a chief archi¬ tect of the Government of India Act (1935). He became foreign secretary (1935) but was forced to resign for his role in developing the unpopular Hoare-Laval Pact. As home secretary (1937-39), he helped develop the

Munich agreement, which marked him as an appeaser and damaged his repu¬ tation. In World War II he served as ambassador to Spain (1940-44).

Hoare-Laval Pact (1935) Secret plan to offer Benito Mussolini most of Ethiopia (then called Abyssinia) in return for a truce in the Italo- Ethiopian War. It was put together by British foreign secretary Sir Samuel Hoare and French premier Pierre Laval, who tried and failed to achieve a rapprochement between France and Italy. When news of the plan leaked out, it drew immediate and widespread denunciation.

Hobart City (pop., 2001: 191,169), chief port, and capital, Tasmania, Australia. Located on the Derwent River estuary at the base of Mount Wellington, Hobart is Tasmania’s largest and Australia’s most southerly city. Established in 1803, it became a major port for ships whaling in the southern oceans. Its lack of natural resources limited its development. It now has a deepwater port, rail lines, and an airport, making it a focus of communications and trade. The city is the site of Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals and the first Jewish synagogue in Australia (built

1843-45).

Hobbema Vha-bo-moV Meindert orig. Meyndert Lub- bertsz(oon) (baptized Oct. 31, 1638, Amsterdam—d. Dec. 7, 1709, Amsterdam) Dutch landscape painter. He worked principally in Amster¬ dam, painting quiet rural scenes studded with trees, rustic buildings, peaceful streams, and water mills. His idyllic landscapes are carefully composed and feature meticulous renderings of twisted foliage and gentle terrain. In 1689 he produced his masterpiece. The Avenue, Middelharnis. Though he apparently had little success in his lifetime, his work became popular and influential in England in the 19th century. In the 20th cen¬ tury he was generally regarded as second only to Jacob van Ruisdael, a pupil of his, among Dutch landscapists.

Hobbes Vhabz\, Thomas (b. April 5, 1588, Westport, Wiltshire, Eng.—d. Dec. 4, 1679, Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire) English philoso¬ pher and political theorist. The son of a vicar who abandoned his family,

Hobbes was raised by his uncle.

After graduating from the University of Oxford he became a tutor and traveled with his pupil in Europe, where he engaged Galileo in philo¬ sophical discussions on the nature of motion. He later turned to political theory, but his support for absolutism put him at odds with the rising anti¬ royalist sentiment of the time. He fled to Paris in 1640, where he tutored the future King Charles II of England. In Paris he wrote his best- known work, Leviathan (1651), in which he attempted to justify the absolute power of the sovereign on the basis of a hypothetical social contract in which individuals seek to protect themselves from one another by agreeing to obey the sovereign in all matters. Hobbes returned to Brit¬ ain in 1651 after the death of Charles I. In 1666 Parliament threatened to investigate him as an atheist. His works are considered important state¬ ments of the nascent ideas of liberalism as well as of the longstanding assumptions of absolutism characteristic of the times.

Hobby, Oveta Culp orig. Oveta Culp (b. Jan. 19, 1905, Killeen, Texas, U.S.—d. Aug. 16, 1995, Houston, Texas) U.S. publisher and gov¬ ernment official. A graduate of the University of Texas Law School, she was parliamentarian of the Texas legislature from 1925 to 1931. In 1931 she married William P. Hobby, publisher of the Houston Post-Dispatch , and went to work for the newspaper, becoming its executive vice presi¬ dent in 1938. From 1942 to 1945 she headed the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (later Women's Army Corps). In 1953 she was appointed director of the Federal Security Agency, which was reorganized as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; as secretary of the department (1953— 55), she was only the second woman to hold a U.S. cabinet position. She became chairman of the board of the Post in 1965.

Hobhouse, L(eonard) T(relawny) (b. Sept. 8,1864, St. Ives, Corn¬ wall, Eng.—d. June 21, 1929, Alen^on, France) British sociologist known

Thomas Hobbes, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by John Michael Wright, in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

882 I Hockney ► Hoffmann

for his comparative studies of social development. He sought to correlate social change with its contribution to the general advance of the commu¬ nity, focusing especially on the intellectual, moral, and religious elements of change. He joined the staff of the Manchester Guardian (1897) and continued to write for the newspaper after leaving to teach sociology at the London School of Economics (1904-29). Among his works are Mor¬ als in Evolution (1906), The Rational Good (1921), and Elements of Social Justice (1922).

Hockney, David (b. July 9, 1937, Bradford, Eng.) British painter, draftsman, printmaker, photographer, and stage designer. He studied at the Bradford College of Art and the Royal College of Art in London. In the mid 1960s he taught at the Universities of Iowa, Colorado, and Cali¬ fornia, and in 1978 he settled permanently in Los Angeles. His portraits, self-portraits, still lifes, and quiet scenes of friends are characterized by economy of technique, preoccupation with light, bright colours, and a frank, mundane realism derived from Pop art and photography. The Cali¬ fornia swimming pool became one of his favourite themes. A brilliant draftsman and printmaker, he published series of etchings, including illus¬ trations for Six Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm (1969). In the 1970s he achieved prominence as a set designer for the opera and ballet. He later experimented with photography and photocollage, and still later with computer technology and printers.

Hodges, Johnny orig. John Cornelius Hodges (b. July 25,1906, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. May 11, 1970, New York, N.Y.) U.S. saxo¬ phonist, one of the greatest alto-saxophone stylists in jazz. “Rabbit” Hodges was encouraged and influenced by Sidney Bechet in the mid-1920s. He joined Duke Ellington’s band in 1928 and quickly became its most prominent soloist. Except for a period when he led his own small group (1951-55), Hodges would remain with Ellington for the rest of his career. His peerless, soulful tone and rhythmic poise made him a master inter¬ preter of both ballads and blues, and Ellington and Billy Strayhorn com¬ posed many pieces expressly for him.

Hodgkin, Dorothy M(ary) orig. Dorothy Mary Crowfoot (b.

May 12, 1910, Cairo, Egypt—d. July 29, 1994, Shipston-on-Stour, War¬ wickshire, Eng.) English chemist. After studying at Oxford and Cam¬ bridge, she went to work at Oxford. From 1942 to 1949 she worked on a structural analysis of penicillin. In 1948 she and her colleagues made the first X-ray photograph of vitamin B 12 , one of the most complex nonpro¬ tein compounds, and they eventually completely determined its atomic arrangement. In 1969 she completed a similar three-dimensional analysis of insulin. Her work won her a 1964 Nobel Prize. She was chancellor of Bristol University (1970-88) and was known for her work for peace and international scientific cooperation. In 1965 she became the second woman ever awarded the Order of Merit.

Hodgkin disease or lymphoreticuloma Uim-fo-ri-.tik-yo- 'lo-m9\ Most common malignant lymphoma. It starts with local, painless swelling of lymph nodes and sometimes of the spleen, liver, or other organs, followed by weight loss and weakness. Diagnosis can be con¬ firmed only by biopsy, usually from a lymph node. The cause remains unknown. Treatment with chemotherapy, radiation, or both depends on the stage of the disease. More than 90% of patients diagnosed early can be cured, as can many with advanced disease.

Hodna, Chott el- Vshat-al-'hod-noN Shallow saline lake, north-central Algeria. At the bottom of an arid depression in the Hodna Plain, it acts as an interior drainage basin. It is subject to extreme evaporation and var¬ ies in size; it is often dry. Roman and premodern settlement is evident in the vicinity, but there is little modem development.

Hoe, Robert; and Hoe, Richard (March) (respectively b. Oct. 29, 1784, Hoes, Leicestershire, Eng.—d. Jan. 4, 1833, New York, N.Y., U.S.; b. Sept. 12, 1812, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. June 7, 1886, Florence, Italy) Father and son, inventors. Robert immigrated to the U.S. in 1803. In New York City he cofounded a printing-equipment company and in 1827 introduced the cast-iron frame, which soon replaced the standard wooden frames used for printing presses. His improved version of the Napier cylinder printing press supplanted all English-made presses in the U.S. Richard joined the company in 1827 and became its head when his father died. He replaced the flatbed press with the first successful rotary press (patented 1847). He followed this innovation with the web press (1865) and the web perfecting press (1871), revolutionary improvements that made the large-circulation daily newspaper possible.

Hoff \hof. Jacobus H(enricus) van't (b. Aug. 30, 1852, Rotter¬ dam, Neth.—d. March 1, 1911, Berlin, Ger.) Dutch physical chemist. His early work on stereochemistry explained optical activity in terms of the tetrahedral bonding of carbon atoms in organic molecules (see configura¬ tion). His later work outlined the principles of chemical kinetics, applied the laws of thermodynamics to chemical equilibria, introduced modern concepts of chemical affinity, and advanced understanding of electrolytes. Equations relating osmotic pressure (see osmosis) to mole fraction of sol¬ ute and relating the equilibrium constant to temperature bear his name. In 1901 he was awarded the first Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Hoffa, Jimmy orig. James Riddle Hoffa (b. Feb. 14, 1913, Bra¬ zil, Ind., U.S.—disappeared July 30, 1975, Bloomfield Hills, near Detroit, Mich.) U.S. labour leader. He moved with his family to Detroit in 1924, left school at 14, and began work as a stockboy and warehouseman. He became a labour organizer in the 1930s, rising in the Teamsters Union dur¬ ing the next two decades until he reached the office of president, which he held from 1957 to 1971. Known throughout the trucking industry as a tough bargainer, he played a key role in forging the first national freight- hauling agreement and helped make the Teamsters the largest labour union in the U.S. Long associated with underworld figures, he was sent to prison in 1967 for jury tampering, fraud, and conspiracy; his sentence was com¬ muted by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1971. In 1975 he disappeared from a restaurant near Detroit; he is believed to have been murdered to prevent his retaking control of the union. His son, James Riddle Hoffa, Jr. (b. 1941), was elected president of the Teamsters in 1999.

Hoffman, Abbie orig. Abbott Hoffman (b. Nov. 30, 1936, Worcester, Mass., U.S.—d. April 12, 1989, New Hope, Pa.) U.S. politi¬ cal activist. He attended Brandeis University and the University of Cali¬ fornia, Berkeley, and became active in the civil rights movement. In 1968 he organized the Youth International Party (Yippies), which protested the Vietnam War and the U.S. political and economic system. He gained wide¬ spread media attention for his courtroom antics as a defendant in the so-called Chicago Seven trial (1969), in which he was convicted of cross¬ ing state lines with intent to riot at the Democratic Party’s national con¬ vention in Chicago in 1968; the conviction was later overturned. After he was arrested on charges of selling cocaine (1973), he went underground, undergoing plastic surgery and adopting the alias “Barry Freed” to work as an environmentalist in New York state. He resurfaced in 1980 and served a year in prison before resuming his environmental work. His books include Revolution for the Hell of It (1968), Steal This Book (1971), and an autobiography, Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture (1980).

Hoffman, Dustin (b. Aug. 8, 1937, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) U.S. actor. He acted in off-Broadway plays from 1965 and made his screen debut in The Graduate (1967), a phenomenal hit. He played a remarkable range of characters in films such as Midnight Cowboy (1969), Little Big Man (1970), All the President’s Men (1976), Kramer vs. Kramer (1979, Academy Award), Tootsie (1982), Rain Man (1988, Academy Award), and Wag the Dog (1997). He returned to the Broadway stage in a revival of Death of a Salesman (1984), repeating the role for television (1985, Emmy Award), and played Shy lock in The Merchant of Venice in Lon¬ don (1989) and New York (1990).

Hoffman, Samuel (Kurtz) (b. April 15, 1902, Williamsport, Pa., U.S.—d. June 26, 1995, Santa Barbara, Calif.) U.S. aeronautical design and rocket propulsion engineer. At North American Aviation (1949-70), he vastly increased the power of rocket engines, and he completed the prototype of the engine for the launch vehicles that orbited the first U.S. satellite (Explorer 1) and placed the first U.S. astronauts in space. His work was essential to the early development of intercontinental and intermediate-range ballistic missiles (see ICBM). From 1958 he oversaw development of the engines for Saturn launch vehicles, which eventually carried U.S. astronauts to the Moon.

Hoffmann Vh6f-man\, E(rnst) T(heodor) A(madeus) orig. Ernst Theodor Wilhelm Hoffmann (b. Jan. 24, 1776, Konigsberg, Prussia—d. June 25, 1822, Berlin, Ger.) German writer and composer, a major figure of German Romanticism. He initially supported himself as a legal official (the conflict between the ideal world of art and daily bureau¬ cratic life is evident in many of his stories) and later turned to writing and music, which he often pursued simultaneously. His story collection Fan¬ tasy Pieces in the Style of Callot (1814-15) established his reputation as a writer. His later popular collections Hoffmann’s Strange Stories (1817) and The Serapion Brethren (1819-21) combine wild flights of imagina-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Hoffmann ► HoheTauern I 883

tion with vivid examinations of human character. Hoffmann also worked as a conductor, music critic, and theatrical musical director. The most successful of his many original musical works were the ballet Arlequin (1811) and the opera Undine (performed 1816). He died at age 46 of pro¬ gressive paralysis. His stories inspired notable operas and ballets by Jacques Offenbach {Tales of Hoffmann ), Leo Delibes ( Coppelia ), Pyotr Tchaikovsky {The Nutcracker), and Paul Hindemith ( Cardillac ).

Hoffmann Vh6f-man\, Josef (b. Dec. 15, 1870, Pirnitz, Moravia—d. May 7, 1956, Vienna, Austria) Austrian architect and designer. He stud¬ ied under Otto Wagner in Vienna but in 1899 helped found the Vienna Sezession, which broke free of Wagner’s Classicism. He cofounded, and for 30 years (1903-33) directed, the Wiener Werkstatte (Vienna Work¬ shop), an important centre for arts and crafts. Stoclet House (1905) in Brussels is considered his masterpiece; the exterior of this opulent struc¬ ture achieved an elegance not often associated with design based on straight lines and white squares and rectangles. He designed the Austrian pavilions for the 1914 Deutscher Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne and for the 1934 Venice Biennale. In 1920 he was appointed city architect of Vienna.

Hofmann, Hans (b. March 21, 1880, Weissenberg, Ger.—d. Feb. 17, 1966, New York, N.Y., U.S.)

German-born U.S. painter and art teacher. From 1898 he studied art in Munich, and in 1904 he moved to Paris, where he was inspired by the work of Henri Matisse and Robert Delaunay. In 1915 he opened his first school of painting in Munich. He moved to the U.S. in 1930 and taught at New York’s Art Students League.

In 1933 he opened the Hans Hof¬ mann School of Fine Art, where he would exert strong influence on young abstract painters of the 1930s and ’40s, including Willem de Koon¬ ing and Jackson Pollock. His style evolved into total abstraction, and he pioneered the paint-dripping tech¬ nique later associated with Pollock.

He closed the school in 1958 to devote the rest of his life to his paint¬ ing. He was one of the most influen¬ tial art teachers of the 20th century and a significant figure in the development of Abstract Expressionism.

Hofmannsthal Vhof-mans-.taB, Hugo von (b. Feb. 1, 1874, Vienna, Austria—d. July 15, 1929, Rodaun, a suburb of Vienna) Austrian poet, dramatist, and essayist. Born into an aristocratic banking family, he made his reputation with lyric poems (the first published when he was 16) and verse plays, including The Death of Titian (1892) and Death and the Fool (1893). He renounced lyrical poetry in a 1902 essay and thereafter turned to theatre; his later plays include Christina's Journey Home (1910), Everyman (1911), The Difficult Man (1921), and The Tower (1925). In 1906 he began a celebrated collaboration with the composer Richard Strauss; their remarkable first opera, Elektra (1908), was followed by Der Rosenkavalier (1910), Ariadne auf Naxos (1912, revised 1916), Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919), and others. In 1920 he cofounded the Salzburg Festival with Max Reinhardt.

hog Heavy, fat-producing domesticated pig developed in the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th century. As the growing use of cheaper vegetable oils decreased the importance of lard as a source of fat, meatpackers sought hogs yielding more lean meat and less fat, and breeders (mostly European) began crossbreeding programs to obtain lean meat and vigor¬ ous animals. Today the term hog is often used for any pig weighing more than 120 lbs (54 kg).

hog cholera or swine fever Often fatal viral disease of swine in Europe, North America, and Africa, transmitted by vehicles used to carry pigs, people dealing with them, and uncooked garbage in feed. Fever progresses to symptoms that include appetite loss; affected eyes and diges¬ tive tract; respiratory difficulty; rash; and inflamed mouth and throat. The pig moves reluctantly and staggers; later it cannot rise; coma follows. Antiserum is rarely effective. Survivors become chronically ill and can

spread the virus. Illness must be reported, infected animals slaughtered, and quarantine instituted. A vaccine can control it. The African strain causes death sooner and has no effective prevention or treatment.

hogan Dwelling of the Navajo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. The hogan is roughly circular and constructed usually of logs, which are stepped in gradually to create a domed roof. The whole structure is then covered with mud and sod except for a circular opening in the roof that allows smoke to escape. The entrance generally faces the rising sun.

Hogan, Ben in full William Benjamin Hogan (b. Aug. 13, 1912, Dublin, Texas, U.S.—d. July 25, 1997, Fort Worth, Texas) U.S. golfer. Hogan became a golf professional in 1929. He won the U.S. PGA cham¬ pionship (1946, 1948), the U.S. Open (1948, 1950, 1951, 1953), the Mas¬ ters Tournament (1951, 1953), and the British Open (1953); several of his victories followed a 1949 car accident in which he was injured so severely that he was not expected to walk again. Hogan was known for his demand¬ ing practice regimen, his single-minded determination, and the extraordi¬ nary accuracy of his shotmaking.

Hogarth, William (b. Nov. 10,1697, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 26, 1764, London) British painter and engraver. Apprenticed at 15 to a sil¬ versmith, he opened his own engrav¬ ing and printing shop at 22. He took private drawing lessons while earn¬ ing a living as an engraver of book illustrations. His first major work, the satirical engraving Masquerades and Operas, attacked contemporary taste and questioned the art estab¬ lishment, thus winning him many enemies. In 1728 he embarked on a painting career with a work that reveals his interest in theatre and comic subject matter, A Scene from “The Beggar's Opera”', he also painted “conversation pieces” (infor¬ mal group portraits) for wealthy cli¬ ents. His engravings of modem morality subjects, often in sequential sets, were aimed at a wide public, and their outstanding success estab¬ lished his financial independence. To safeguard his livelihood against pirated editions, he fought for legislation protecting artists’ copyright. Britain’s first copyright act was passed in 1735, the year he published his satirical eight-part series The Rake’s Progress. His other satirical series include A Harlot’s Progress (1730-31) and Marriage a la Mode (1743— 45). The teaching academy he established led to the founding of the Royal Academy (1768).

Hogg, James (baptized Dec. 9, 1770, Ettrick, Selkirkshire, Scot.—d. Nov. 21, 1835, Altrive, Yarrow) Scottish poet. A shepherd, he was almost entirely self-educated. The talents of “the Ettrick Shepherd” were discov¬ ered by Walter Scott when Hogg supplied material for Scott’s Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, and his popularity accompanied the ballad revival of the early Romantic movement. Hogg’s other writings include the poetry collection The Queen’s Wake (1813) and The Private Memoirs and Con¬ fessions of a Justified Sinner (1824), a novel about religious mania with a psychopathic hero that anticipates the modern psychological thriller.

Hoggar Mountains See Ahaggar

hognose snake Any of three or four species (genus Heterodon, fam¬ ily Colubridae) of harmless North American snakes named for their upturned snout, which is used for digging. When threatened, they flatten the head and neck, then strike with a loud hiss, but rarely bite. If their bluff fails, they roll over, writhing, and then act dead, with mouth open and tongue lolling. They eat chiefly toads and frogs. Heavy-bodied and blotchy, they are usually about 24 in. (60 cm) long. Though not adders, they are sometimes called puff adders or blow snakes.

Hohe Tauern Vho-o-'tau-orM Segment of the eastern Alps, in southern Austria. It extends 70 mi (110 km) east from the Italian border in Tirol. Its many lofty peaks include the Grossglockner, Austria’s highest. The region is popular for mountain climbing and skiing.

Hans Hofmann, photograph by Arnold Newman, 1960.

©ARNOLD NEWMAN

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

884 I Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst ► Holderlin

Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst Vho-on-To-o-'shi-liqgs-.fiErstX, Chlod- wig (Karl Viktor), prince zu (b. March 31, 1819, Rotenburg an der Fulda, Hesse-Nassau—d. July 6, 1901, Bad Ragaz, Switz.) Imperial Ger¬ man chancellor and Prussian prime minister (1894-1900). Active in Bavarian politics from 1846, he served as minister president (1866-70) after Prussia’s defeat of Bavaria in the Seven Weeks' War. He favoured a unified Germany, and in 1871 he entered the service of the German Empire. He was appointed German chancellor in 1894. His wide expe¬ rience and fatherly relationship with Emperor William II failed to prevent his sovereign’s demagogic excesses, and his influence largely ended in 1897 when Bernhard, prince von Bulow, became foreign secretary.

Hohenstaufen dynasty V.ho-on-'shtau-fonN German dynasty that ruled the Holy Roman Empire (1138-1208, 1212-54). It was founded by Count Frederick (died 1105), who built Staufen Castle and was appointed duke of Swabia as Frederick I (1079). Hohenstaufen emperors included Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1155-90), Henry VI (r. 1191-97), and Frederick II (r. 1220-50). The dynasty continued the struggle with the papacy begun under their predecessors. See also Guelphs and Ghibelunes.

Hohenzollern V.ho-ont-'so-lomV dynasty Dynasty prominent in European history, chiefly as the ruling house of Brandenburg-Prussia (1415-1918) and of imperial Germany (1871-1918). The first recorded ancestor, Burchard I, was count of Zollern in the 11th century. Two main branches were formed: the Franconian line (including burgraves of Niirn- berg, electors of Brandenburg, kings of Prussia, and German emperors) and the Swabian line (including counts of Zollern, princes of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen, and princes and then kings of Romania). The Franconian branch became Lutheran at the Reformation but turned to Cal¬ vinism in 1613 and acquired considerable territory in the 15th—17th cen¬ turies. Both Prussian and German sovereignties were lost at the end of World War I (1914-18). The Swabian line remained Catholic at the Ref¬ ormation and ruled in Romania until 1947. The Hohenzollern monarchs included Frederick William I, Frederick II (the Great), Frederick William II, and Frederick William III of Prussia; William I and William II of Germany; and Carol I and Carol II of Romania.

Hohhot Vho-'hoA or Hu-ho-hao-t'e Vhu-'hs-'hau-'taV or Huhehot

Vhii-.ho-'hoA Mongol Kukukhoto \ 1 kii-ku-'ko-to\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 754,749), capital of Inner Mongolia autonomous region, northern China. The original Mongol city was an important religious centre for Tibetan Buddhism and later a Muslim trading community. After World War II (1939—45) it developed into an industrial centre with sugar refining, wool¬ ens, and an iron and steel industry. Its university (1957) was the first in Inner Mongolia. The city is a regional cultural centre.

Hohokam Vho-ho-.kamX culture Complex of North American Indian peoples who lived c. 300 bc-ad 1400 in the Sonoran Desert (Arizona, U.S.), especially along the Gila and Salt rivers. The Hohokam Indians developed intricate networks of canals for irrigation, an agricultural engi¬ neering feat unsurpassed in pre-Columbian North America. Some 14th- century canals have been restored for use. Corn was the major crop; beans and squash were added after contact with the Anasazi. For unknown rea¬ sons, Hohokam culture disintegrated in the early 15th century. The Pima and Papago peoples are probably direct descendants.

Hojo family Family of hereditary regents to the shogunate of Japan who exercised actual power from 1199 to 1333. Hojo Tokimasa (1138— 1215) joined the cause of Minamoto Yoritomo against Taira Kiyomori, then ruler of Japan. Together they prevailed, and Yoritomo became Japan’s new ruler, taking the title of shogun. Tokimasa’ s daughter married Yoritomo, and when Yoritomo died in 1199 Tokimasa became regent to Yoritomo’s heir, his own grandson. The position of shogunal regent became heredi¬ tary; this office oversaw the constables and tax collectors that the shogu¬ nate placed in each province. The system worked well through the first half of the 13th century; its decline came about after resources had been depleted defending Japan against two Mongol invasions and because of the personal failings of the last Hojo regent. Hojo rule ended when Ash- ikaga Takauji captured Kyoto in the name of the emperor Go-Daigo and the Ashikaga family assumed the title of shogun. See also Kamakura period.

Hokan \'ho-kon\ languages Hypothetical superfamily of North American Indian languages uniting a number of languages and language families of the western U.S. and Mexico. The Hokan hypothesis was first proposed by Roland B. Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber in 1913 and refined by Edward Sapir; like the Penutian designation, it was an attempt to reduce the number of unrelated language families in one of the most linguisti¬

cally heterogeneous areas of the world. Its core consisted of languages of aboriginal California and the Southwest, with outlying members from Sonora and Oaxaca in Mexico. Except for some Yuman languages (spo¬ ken in southern California, Arizona, and Baja California), all were either extinct or spoken almost exclusively by older adults by the beginning of the 21st century.

Hokkaido \h6-'kl-d6\ formerly Yezo \'ye-zo\ Island (pop., 2000 pre¬ lim.: 5,683,000) and province, northern Japan. Northernmost of the four main islands of Japan, it is bordered by the Sea of Japan (East Sea), the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Pacific Ocean and has an area of 30,107 sq mi (77,978 sq km). Its administrative headquarters is Sapporo. Within its bor¬ ders are several high mountains, including Asahi (7,513 ft [2,290 m]), and Japan’s longest river, the Ishikari. Long the domain of the aboriginal Ainu, Hokkaido attracted serious Japanese settlement beginning in 1869. It has a varied economy, supported by iron and steel, and the largest coal deposits in Japan. The Seikan Tunnel (1988) under the Tsugaru Strait links it with Honshu.

Hokusai Vho-ku-.sl \orig. Katsushika Hokusai (b. Oct. 1760, Edo, Japan—d. May 10, 1849, Edo) Japanese painter, draftsman, printmaker, and book illustrator. Apprenticed to a woodcut engraver at 15, he became a student of the leading ukiyo-e master, Katsukawa Shunsho, in 1778. His first published works, prints of kabuki actors, appeared the following year. He soon turned to historical and landscape subjects and prints of children. He developed an eclectic style and achieved success with book illustra¬ tions and surimono prints (“printed things” for special occasions, such as cards and announcements), picture books and novelettes, erotic books and album prints, paintings, and ink sketches. He experimented with Western- style perspective and use of colour and later concentrated on samurai themes and Chinese subjects. His Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (1826— 33), a series of prints, marked a summit in the history of the Japanese landscape print; in grandeur of concept and skill of execution there was little approaching it before and nothing to surpass it later. He had numer¬ ous followers, though none had his power or versatility.

Holbein \'hol- 1 bIn\, Hans, the Younger (b. 1497/98, Augsburg, Bishopric of Augsburg—d. 1543, London, Eng.) German painter, drafts¬ man, and designer renowned for the precise rendering of his drawings and the compelling realism of his portraits, particularly those recording the court of Henry VIII of England. His father, Hans Holbein the Elder, and his uncle Sigmund were renowned for their somewhat conservative examples of late Gothic painting in Germany. Holbein the Younger no doubt studied with his father in Augsburg. He moved to Basel c. 1515, entered the painters’ corporation in 1519, and was executing important murals by 1521. He also designed book illustrations and woodcuts for publishers, notably a series of more than 40 scenes illustrating the medi¬ eval allegory of the “dance of death” (1523-26). His portraits, including that of Desiderius Erasmus (1523), featured rich colour, psychological depth, detailed accessories, and dramatic silhouette. In 1526 he went to England, where he painted portraits of German merchants and court per¬ sonalities, and by 1536 he had entered the service of Henry VIII. In his last 10 years he produced some 150 life-size and miniature portraits of the royalty and nobility. He also designed fashions for the court and state robes for the king. He was one of the greatest portraitists of all time.

Holberg \'hol-berg\, Ludvig, Baron (b. Dec. 3, 1684, Bergen, Nor.—d. Jan. 28, 1754, Copenhagen, Den.) Norwegian-Danish man of letters. Educated in Denmark and England, he traveled in various Euro¬ pean countries before becoming a professor at the University of Copen¬ hagen; while there he began to create a new class of humorous literature. His seriocomic epic Peder Paars (1719), a parody of Virgil’s Aeneid, is the earliest classic of the Danish language. Holberg was soon producing a steady flow of stage comedies, including The Political Tinker (1723), The Weathercock (1723), Jean de France (1723), Jeppe of the Hill (1723), The Fussy Man (1731), and Erasmus Montanus (1731), many of which are still produced. The outstanding Scandinavian literary figure of the Enlightenment, Holberg is claimed by both Norway and Denmark as a founder of their literatures.

Holderlin Vhcel-dor-.lenV (Johann Christian) Friedrich (b. March 20, 1770, Lauffen am Neckar, Wiirttemberg—d. June 7, 1843, Tubingen) German poet. He qualified for ordination but found himself more drawn to Greek mythology than to Christian dogma. In 1793 he was befriended by Friedrich Schiller, who helped him publish his early poetry. He produced works of passionate, expressive intensity, including his only novel, Hype-

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

holding company ► Hollerith I 885

rion (1797-99), the unfinished trag¬ edy The Death of Empedocles, and a number of odes, elegies, and verse translations. In these works he natu¬ ralized the forms of Classical Greek verse in German and lamented the loss of an idealized Classical Greek world. His behaviour became erratic, and in 1805 he succumbed irretriev¬ ably to schizophrenia; he spent his last 36 years in a carpenter’s house under the shadow of insanity. Little recognized in his lifetime, he was forgotten until the 20th century, when he came to be ranked among the finest of German lyric poets.

holding company Corporation that owns enough voting stock in one or more other companies to exercise control over them. A holding com¬ pany provides a means of concen¬ trating control of several companies with a minimum of investment; other means of gaining control, such as mergers or consolidations, are more complicated legally and more expensive. A holding company can reap the benefits of a subsidiary’s goodwill and reputation while limiting its liabil¬ ity to the proportion of the subsidiary’s stock that it owns. The parent company in a conglomerate corporation is usually a holding company.

Holi Vho-le\ Hindu spring festival. It is held on the full-moon day of Phalguna (February-March) and celebrated with reckless abandon. All distinctions of caste, age, sex, and status are disregarded. Participants throw coloured powders on each other, and street celebrations are noisy and riotous. The festival is especially associated with the worship of Krishna, and it is considered an imitation of his play with the wives and daughters of the cowherds.

Holiday, Billie orig. Eleanora Fagan (b. April 7, 1915, Baltimore, Md., U.S.—d. July 17, 1959, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jazz singer. She was “discovered” while she was singing in a Harlem nightclub in 1933.

Recordings with Benny Goodman and Duke Ellington led to a series of outstanding small-group records (1935—42) featuring musicians such as Lester Young (who gave her the sobriquet Lady Day) and Teddy Wil¬ son. Exposure with the big bands of Count Basie (1937) and Artie Shaw (1938) brought her greater public attention; for the rest of her life she would remain one of the best known of jazz singers. Among the songs identified with her were “Strange Fruit” and “God Bless the Child.” Personal crises and drug and alcohol addiction plagued her career, and she was incarcerated in 1947 on nar¬ cotics charges. Her voice could reveal a sweet, often sensual expressive¬ ness or disturbing bitterness in the service of a lyric: her clear projection of emotion represents a landmark of personal expression.

Holiness movement Fundamentalist religious movement that arose in the 19th century among Protestant churches in the U.S. It was charac¬ terized by the doctrine of sanctification, according to which believers were enabled to live a perfect life after a conversion experience. It originated in the teachings of John Wesley, founder of Methodism, who issued a call for Christian “perfection” (the transformation of a sinner into a saint through God’s intercession). In 1843 a group of Holiness ministers founded the Wesleyan Methodist Church of America, which became popular in the rural Midwest and South; another Holiness church of this era was the Free Methodist Church of North America, founded in 1860. Between 1880 and World War I a new set of Holiness groups appeared, including the Church of the Nazarene, established to minister to the urban poor, and the Church of God.

Holinshed \'ha-bn-,shed\, Raphael (d. c. 1580) English chronicler. From c. 1560 Holinshed lived in London, where he was employed as a translator by Reginald Wolfe, who was preparing a universal history. Holinshed is remembered for his Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande (1577), an abridged history he published after Wolfe’s death, compiled largely uncritically from many sources of varying degrees of trustworthiness. It enjoyed great popularity and was quarried by Elizabe¬ than dramatists, especially William Shakespeare, who drew on its second edition (1587) for Macbeth, King Lear, Cymbeline, and many of his his¬ torical plays.

holism Vho-.li-zomX In the philosophy of the social sciences, the view that denies that all large-scale social events and conditions are ultimately explicable in terms of the individuals who participated in, enjoyed, or suffered them. Methodological holism maintains that at least some social phenomena must be studied at their own autonomous, macroscopic level of analysis, that at least some social “wholes” are not reducible to or completely explicable in terms of individuals’ behaviour (see emergence). Semantic holism denies the claim that all meaningful statements about large-scale social phenomena (e.g., “The industrial revolution resulted in urbanization”) can be translated without residue into statements about the actions, attitudes, relations, and circumstances of individuals.

holistic \ho-'lis-tik\ medicine Doctrine of prevention and treatment that emphasizes looking at the whole person—body, mind, emotions, and environment—rather than a single function or organ. It promotes use of a wide range of health practices and therapies, including acupuncture, homeopathy, and nutrition, stressing “self-care” with traditional common- sense essentials. In the extreme, it may accord equal validity to a wide range of health-care approaches, some incompatible and not all scientific. It does not ignore mainstream Western medical practices but does not see them as the only effective therapies. See also alternative medicine.

Holland Historic region, The Netherlands, occupying the northwestern portion of the modem country. It originated in the early 12th century as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1299 Holland was united with Hain- aut. Members of the house of Wittelsbach served as counts of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut until 1433, when they ceded the titles to Philip III (the Good), duke of Burgundy. It passed to the Habsburgs in 1482 and became a centre of the revolt against Spain in 1572. Holland and six other northern Netherlands provinces declared their independence from Spain in 1579, proclaiming the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Its capi¬ tal, Amsterdam, became Europe’s foremost commercial centre in the 18th century. The Napoleonic kingdom of Holland occupied the territory (1806-10). In 1840 it was divided into the provinces of North Holland and South Holland.

Holland, Brian and Eddie orig. Edward Holland (respectively b. Feb. 15, 1941, Detroit, Mich., U.S.; b. Oct. 30, 1939, Detroit, Mich., U.S.) U.S. songwriters and producers. In 1962 the brothers formed a team with Lamont Dozier (b. 1941), which subsequently created a series of hits for almost every artist on the Motown label and helped define its char¬ acteristic sound through blending elements of gospel music and rhythm and blues with elaborate arrangements. Their songs include “Baby Love,” “Stop! In the Name of Love” (two of the seven hits they wrote for the Supremes), “Heat Wave,” “Baby, I Need Your Loving,” and dozens of other hits for artists such as Marvin Gaye and the Temptations.

Holland (of Foxley and of Holland), Henry Richard Vas- sall Fox, 3rd Baron (b. Nov. 21, 1773, Winterslow, Wiltshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 22, 1840, London) British Whig politician. He was the nephew and disciple of Charles James Fox, whose ideas he expounded in the House of Lords. As lord privy seal in George Grenville’s “Ministry of All the Talents” coalition (1806-07), he helped secure the abolition of the slave trade in the British colonies. He later served as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1830-34, 1835-40).

Hollerith, Herman (b. Feb. 29, 1860, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.—d. Nov. 17, 1929, Washington, D.C.) U.S. inventor. He attended Columbia Uni¬ versity’s School of Mines and later assisted in the 1880 U.S. census. By the time of the 1890 census, he had invented machines to record statis¬ tics by electrically reading and sorting punched cards, and the census results were consequently obtained in one-third the time required in 1880. In 1896 he founded the Tabulating Machine Co., which later became IBM Corp. Hollerith’s electromechanical sensing and punching devices were forerunners of the input/output units of later computers.

Friedrich Holderlin, pastel by Franz Karl Hiemer, 1792; in the Schiller- Nationalmuseum, Marbach, Germany.

COURTESY OF THE SCHILLER-NATIONALMUSEUM, MARBACH, GERMANY

Billie Holiday, 1958.

REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF DOWN BEAT MAGAZINE

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

886 I Holley ► Holocaust

Holley, Robert William (b. Jan. 28, 1922, Urbana, Ill., U.S.—d. Feb. 11, 1993, Los Gatos, Calif.) U.S. biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from Cornell University. Holley and others showed that transfer RNA was involved in the assembly of amino acids into proteins. He was the first to determine the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid, a process that required digesting the molecule with enzymes, identifying the pieces, and then figuring out how they fit together. It has since been shown that all transfer RNA has a similar structure. He shared a 1968 Nobel Prize with Marshall Warren Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana.

Holliday, Doc orig. John Henry Holliday (baptized March 21, 1852, Griffin, Ga., U.S.—d. Nov. 8, 1887, Glenwood Springs, Colo.) U.S. gambler and gunman. After graduating from dental school in 1872, he moved to the drier climate of the West to help treat his tuberculosis. After practicing dentistry briefly in Dallas, Texas, he took up gambling, and he began drifting throughout the West, finally settling in Tombstone, Ariz., in 1880. There he joined Wyatt Earp and his brothers in the famous gun- fight at the O.K. Corral (1881). Having earned a reputation as a gunman, he resumed his drifting; five years later he died of tuberculosis at age 35.

Hollweg, Theobald von Bethmann See Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg

holly Any of approximately 400 species of red- or black-berried orna¬ mental shrubs and trees that make up the genus Ilex (family Aquifoli- aceae), including the popular Christ¬ mas hollies. English holly (/. aquifolium ) bears shiny, spiny, dark, evergreen leaves; American holly (/. opaca ) has oblong, prickly leaves; both have usually red fruits. There are spineless and yellow-fruited forms of both species.

Holly, Buddy orig. Charles Hardin Holley (b. Sept. 7, 1936,

Lubbock, Texas, U.S.—d. Feb. 3,

1959, near Clear Lake, Iowa) U.S. singer and songwriter. He played in country music bands while in high school. Later switching to rock and roll (see rock music), Holly and his band, the Crickets, had hits in 1957 with songs such as “That’ll Be the Day,” “Peggy Sue,” and “Oh, Boy!” Holly died at age 22 in a plane crash, along with the singers Richie Valens (b. 1941) and The Big Bopper (Jape Richardson, b. 1930). He left behind many recordings that were released posthumously, and he soon attained legendary stature; he was part of the first group inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

hollyhock Herbaceous plant {Althaea rosea ) of the mallow family, native to China but widely cultivated for its handsome flowers. The sev¬ eral varieties include annual, bien¬ nial, and perennial forms. The stalk, growing about 5-9 ft (1.5-2.7 m) tall, bears leaves with five to seven lobes and, along the upper portion, commonly white, pink, red, or yel¬ low flowers.

Hollywood District of the city of Los Angeles, Calif., U.S. Its name is synonymous with the American movie industry. In 1887 it was laid out as a subdivision by Horace Wil¬ cox, a prohibitionist who envisioned a community based on his religious principles. It was consolidated with Los Angeles in 1910 and became the centre of the movie industry by 1915. By the 1960s it also was the source of much American network television programming.

Hollywood City (pop., 2000: 139,357), southeastern Florida, U.S. Lying along the Atlantic coast, the site was a palmetto jungle when the developer Joseph W. Young laid out the town in 1921. It is now prima¬

rily a resort-residential city with some diversified industry. Nearby are Port Everglades (a docking and warehousing facility) and a Seminole res¬ ervation.

Hollywood Ten Group of U.S. movie producers, directors, and screen¬ writers who refused to answer questions about communist affiliations before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1947. The Ten— Alvah Bessie, Herbert Biberman, Lester Cole, Edward Dmytryk, Ring Lardner, Jr., John Howard Lawson, Albert Maltz, Samuel Omitz, Adrian Scott, and Dalton Trumbo—were charged with contempt of Congress and given prison sentences of six months to a year. After their release, they were blacklisted and unable to find work in Hollywood, though some wrote scripts under pseudonyms. The blacklist gradually disappeared in the early 1960s.

Holm, Hanya orig. Johanna Eckert (b. March 3, 1893, Worms- am-Rhein, Ger.—d. Nov. 3, 1992,

New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. choreographer of modem dance and Broadway musicals. After train¬ ing in Germany, she worked at Mary Wigman’s Central Institute in Dres¬ den as a dancer and teacher and later codirector. In 1931 she opened a Wigman school in New York City, which became the Hanya Holm Stu¬ dio in 1936. In addition to works for her own company, she choreo¬ graphed musicals such as My Fair Lady (1956) and Came lot (1960).

She promoted the use of dance nota¬ tion, and her choreography for Kiss Me, Kate (1948) was the first to be copyrighted.

Holmes, Larry (b. Nov. 3, 1949,

Cuthbert, Ga., U.S.) U.S. heavy¬ weight boxing champion. Holmes won 19 of 23 amateur bouts before turning professional. From 1973 to 1978 Holmes won 28 consecutive bouts, culminating in a victory over the reigning champion, Ken Norton. He defended the title 17 times between 1978 and 1983, once (1980) against Muhammad All He lost the title to Michael Spinks in 1985. Only Joe Louis held the heavyweight crown longer than Holmes.

Holmes, Oliver Wendell (b. Aug. 29, 1809, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. Oct. 7, 1894, Cambridge) U.S. physician, poet, and humourist. He joined the Harvard faculty in 1847 and later became dean of its medi¬ cal school. He won national acclaim with his poem “Old Ironsides” (1830). From 1857 he published his “Breakfast-Table” essays in The Atlantic Monthly, later republished in such collections as The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table (1858) and The Professor of the Breakfast-Table (1860). Other works include the poem “The Chambered Nautilus” and the novel Elsie Venner (1861). Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., is his son.

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr. (b. March 8, 1841, Boston, Mass.—d. March 6, 1935, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist, legal historian, and phi¬ losopher. He was the son of Oliver Wendell Holmes and Amelia Lee Jack- son, daughter of a Massachusetts supreme court justice. As an officer in the American Civil War, he was seriously wounded three times. He prac¬ ticed law in Boston from 1867, eventually serving as an associate justice (1882-99) and then chief justice (1899-1902) of the state supreme court. In The Common Law (1881), he advanced the notion of law as accumu¬ lated experience rather than science. Appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt in 1902, Holmes advocated judicial restraint, maintaining that lawmaking was the business of legis¬ lative bodies rather than the courts. In Schenk v. U.S. (1919), he articu¬ lated the “clear and present danger” test for proposed restrictions on freedom of speech. Many of his vigorous and lucid opinions, including dis¬ senting opinions (he was known as “The Great Dissenter”), became clas¬ sic interpretations of the law, and he is regarded as one of the foremost jurists of the modern age. He served until 1932.

Holocaust Hebrew Sho’ah Systematic state-sponsored killing of Jews and others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. Fueled by anti-Semitism, the Nazi persecution of Jews began soon after Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1933 with a boycott of

Hollyhock (Althaea rosea)

LEFEVER/GRUSHOW FROM GRANT HEILMAN PHOTOGRAPHY, INC.

Hanya Holm, 1929.

COURTESY OF THE DANCE COLLECTION, THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY AT LINCOLN CENTER, HANYA HOLM COLLECTION

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Holocaust Remembrance ► Holy Roman I 887

Jewish businesses and the dismissal of Jewish civil servants. Under the Nurnberg Laws (1935), Jews lost their citizenship. About 7,500 Jewish businesses were gutted and some 1,000 synagogues burned or damaged in the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, and thereafter Jews were imprisoned in concentration camps or forced into ghettos. German victories early in World War II (1939—45) brought most European Jews under the control of the Nazis and their satellites. As German armies moved into Poland, the Balkans, and the Soviet Union, special mobile killing units, the Ein- satzgruppen, rounded up and killed Jews, Roma (Gypsies), communists, political leaders, and intellectuals. Other groups targeted by the Nazis included homosexuals and the mentally retarded, physically disabled, and emotionally disturbed. At the Wannsee Conference (1942), a “final solu¬ tion” was formulated for the extermination of European Jewry, and there¬ after Jews from all over Nazi-occupied Europe were systematically evacuated to concentration and extermination camps, where they were either killed or forced into slave labour. Underground resistance move¬ ments arose in several countries, and Jewish risings took place against overwhelming odds in the ghettos of Poland (see Warsaw Ghetto Upris¬ ing). Individuals such as Raoul Wallenberg saved thousands by their efforts; whether the Allied governments and the Vatican could have done more to aid Jews has long been a matter of controversy. By the end of the war, an estimated six million Jews and millions of others had been killed by Nazi Germany and its collaborators.

Holocaust Remembrance days International commemoration of the millions of victims of Nazi Germany’s exterminationist policies. The commemoration, observed on different days in different countries, often marks the victims’ efforts at resistance and concentrates on contemporary efforts to battle hatred and anti-Semitism. From 1951 Jews have observed Holocaust Remembrance Day on the 27th of Nisan, shortly after Pass- over, in the Jewish calendar. The Israeli parliament declared that day Yom Hashoah ve Hagevurah (Holocaust Remembrance and Heroism Day), marking not only destruction but resistance.

Holocene Vho-l3-,sen\ Epoch formerly Recent Epoch Latest inter¬ val of the Earth’s geologic history, dating from 10,000 years ago to the present. The younger of the two epochs that constitute the Quaternary Period, the Holocene follows the last glacial stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. It is characterized by relatively warm climatic conditions. During this epoch humans have refined the skills that have led to the present level of civilization.

holography \ho-'la-gr9-fe\ Method of recording or reproducing a three-dimensional image, or hologram, by means of a pattern of interfer¬ ence produced using a laser beam. To create a hologram, a beam of coher¬ ent light (a laser) is split; half the beam falls on a recording medium (such as a photographic plate) unaltered, and the other half is first reflected off the object to be imaged. The two beams together produce an interference pattern of stripes and whorls on the plate. The developed plate is the holo¬ gram. When light is shone on the hologram, a three-dimensional image of the original object is produced by the recorded interference pattern. Some holograms require laser light to reproduce the image; others may be viewed in ordinary white light. Holography was invented in 1947 by the Hungarian-British physicist Dennis Gabor (1900-1979), who won a 1971 Nobel Prize for his invention.

Holst, Gustav(us Theodore von) (b. Sept. 21, 1874, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. May 25, 1934, London) British composer. The son of an organist, he studied at the Royal College of Music. There he met Ralph Vaughan Williams, who became a friend for life. He made his living first by playing trombone, then as a teacher. Always frail, after a collapse in 1923 he gave up teaching to devote the rest of his life to com¬ position. His most popular piece is the vividly orchestrated suite The Planets (1916); other works include the charming St. Paul’s Suite for strings (1913), the Hymn of Jesus (1917), and the Choral Fantasia { 1930).

Holstein \'hol-sten\ or Holstein-Friesian \'fre-zhon\ Breed of large dairy cattle that originated in northern Holland and Friesland. Its chief characteristics are its large size and black-and-white-spotted markings, sharply defined rather than blended. Probably selected for their dairy qualities c. 2,000 years ago, they have long been distributed over the fer¬ tile lowlands of continental Europe. In the U.S., Holsteins outnumber all other dairy breeds and produce 90% of the milk supply. Their milk has a relatively low butterfat content.

Holstein See Schleswig-Holstein

Holstein Yhol-,shtm\, Friedrich (August) von (b. April 24, 1837, Schwedt an der Oder, Pomerania—d. May 8, 1909, Berlin, Ger.) German diplomat. A member of the German foreign office from 1876, he never became foreign minister but exercised power behind the scenes, earning the nickname “the Gray Eminence.” He broke with Otto von Bismarck over his alignment with Russia, as Holstein advocated a firm alliance with Austria and Britain. After Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890, Holstein advised against the renewal of the Reinsurance Treaty. He held important posts under Chancellors Leo, count von Caprivi, Chlodwig, prince zu Hohenlohe- Schilungfurst, and Bernhard, prince von Bulow, but he proved powerless to oppose the policies of Emperor William II and was dismissed in 1906.

Holy Alliance Loose organization of most of the European sovereigns, formed in 1815 by Alexander I of Russia, Francis I of Austria, and Fred¬ erick William III of Prussia, after the final defeat of Napoleon. Its avowed purpose was to promote the influence of Christian principles in the affairs of nations, but it accomplished little and became a symbol of conserva¬ tism and repression in central and eastern Europe. See also Congress of Laibach.

Holy Communion See Eucharist Holy Grail See grail Holy Island See Lindisfarne

Holy League (1576-98) Association of Roman Catholics during the French Wars of Religion. It was first organized under the leadership of the 3rd duke de Guise, to oppose concessions granted to the Protestant Hugue¬ nots by Henry III. In 1584, when the Huguenot leader Henry of Navarra (later Henry IV) became heir to the throne, the Holy League set up an alter¬ native candidate, with Spain’s assistance. To put an end to the league, which challenged his authority, Henry III had the duke de Guise assassi¬ nated (1588), an act that, rather than destroying the League, led to Henry’s own assassination in 1589. The league opposed the accession of Henry IV, but its power waned when he became a Roman Catholic in 1593.

Holy of Holies Innermost and most sacred area of the ancient Temple of Jerusalem, accessible only to the Israelite high priest and only once a year, on Yom Kippur. The Holy of Holies was located at the western end of the temple. At its entrance stood a small cedar altar overlaid with gold. In the First Temple (see Temple of Jerusalem) the Holy of Holies held the Ark of the Covenant.

Holy Roman Empire German Heiliges Romisches Reich Realm of varying extent in medieval and modem western and central Europe. Traditionally believed to have been established by Charlemagne, who was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III in 800, the empire lasted until the renunciation of the imperial title by Francis II in 1806. The reign of the German Otto I (the Great; r. 962-973), who revived the imperial title after Carolingian decline, is also sometimes regarded as the beginning of the empire. The name Holy Roman Empire (not adopted until the reign of Frederick I Barbarossa) reflected Charlemagne’s claim that his empire was the successor to the Roman Empire and that this temporal power was augmented by his status as God’s principal vicar in the temporal realm (parallel to the pope’s in the spiritual realm). The empire’s core consisted of Germany, Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia. Switzerland, the Nether¬ lands, and northern Italy sometimes formed part of it; France, Poland, Hungary, and Denmark were initially included, and Britain and Spain were nominal components. From the mid-11th century the emperors engaged in a great struggle with the papacy for dominance, and, particu¬ larly under the powerful Hohenstaufen dynasty (1138-1208, 1212-54), they fought with the popes over control of Italy. Rudolf I became the first Habsburg emperor in 1273, and from 1438 the Habsburg dynasty held the throne for centuries. Until 1356 the emperor was chosen by the German princes; thereafter he was formally elected by the electors. Outside their personal hereditary domains, emperors shared power with the imperial diet. During the Reformation the German princes largely defected to the Protestant camp, opposing the Catholic emperor. At the end of the Thirty Years' War, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) recognized the individual sov¬ ereignty of the empire’s states; the empire thereafter became a loose fed¬ eration of states and the title of emperor principally honorific. In the 18th century, issues of imperial succession resulted in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. The greatly weakened empire was brought to an end by the victories of Napoleon. See also Guelphs and Ghi- bellines; Investiture Controversy; Concordat of Worms. See table on fol¬ lowing page.

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

888 I Holy Spirit ► Homer

Holy Roman Emperors

Carolingian dynasty

Henry Raspe

1246-47

Charlemagne

William of Holland

1247-56

(Charles 1)

800-14

Conrad IV

1250-54

Louis 1

814-40

Great Interregnum

Civil War

840-43

Richard

1257-72

Lothair 1

843-55

Alfonso (Alfonso X

Louis II

855-75

of Castile)

1257-75

Charles II

875-77

House of Habsburg

Interregnum

877-81

Rudolf 1

1273-91

Charles III

881-87

House of Nassau

Interregnum

887-91

Adolf

1292-98

House of Spoleto

House of Habsburg

Guy

891-94

Albert 1

1298-1308

Lambert

894-98

House of Luxembourg

Carolingian dynasty

Henry VII

1308-13

Arnulf

896-99

House of Habsburg

Louis III

901-5

Frederick (III)

1314-26

House of Franconia

House of Wittelsbach

Conrad 1

911-18

Louis IV

1314-46

Carolingian dynasty

House of Luxembourg

Berengar

915-24

Charles IV

1346-78

House of Saxony (Liudolfings)

Wenceslas

1378-1400

Henry 1

919-36

House of Wittelsbach

Otto 1

936-73

Rupert

1400-10

Otto II

973-83

House of Luxembourg

Otto III

983-1002

Jobst

1410-11

Henry II

1002-24

Sigismund

1410-37

Salian dynasty

House of Habsburg

Conrad II

1024-39

Albert II

1438-39

Henry III

1039-56

Frederick III

1440-93

Henry IV

1056-1105/6

Maximilian 1

1493-1519

Rival claimants

Charles V

1519-56

Rudolf

1077-80

Ferdinand 1

1556-64

Hermann

1081-93

Maximilian II

1564-76

Conrad

1093-1101

Rudolf II

1576-1612

Henry V 1

05/6-25

Matthias

1612-19

House of Supplinburg

Ferdinand II

1619-37

Lothair II

1125-37

Ferdinand III

1637-57

House of Hohenstaufen

Leopold 1

1658-1705

Conrad III

1138-52

Joseph 1

1705-11

Frederick 1 (Barbarossa

1152-90

Charles VI

1711-40

Henry VI

1190-97

House of Wittelsbach

Philip

1198-1208

Charles VII

1742-45

Welf dynasty

House of Habsburg

Otto IV

1198-1215

Francis 1

1745-65

House of Hohenstaufen

Joseph II

1765-90

Frederick II

1215-50

Leopold II

1790-92

Rival claimants

Francis II

1792-1806

Henry (VII)

1220-35

Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost or Paraclete In Christianity, the third person of the Holy Trinity. Though references to the spirit of Yahweh (God) abound in the Old Testament, Christian teaching about the Holy Spirit is derived mainly from the Gospels. The Holy Spirit descended on Jesus at his baptism, and outpourings of the Spirit are mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, in which healing, prophecy, exorcism, and speaking in tongues are associated with its activity. The Holy Spirit also came to the disciples during Pentecost. The definition of the Holy Spirit as a divine person equal in substance to the Father and the Son was made at the Council of Constantinople (ad 381).

Holy Synod Ysi-nad\ Ecclesiastical governing body created by Tsar Peter I in 1721 to head the Russian Orthodox Church, replacing the patri¬ archate of Moscow. Peter created the Synod, made up of representatives of the hierarchy obedient to his will, to subject the church to the state, and appointed a secular official, the chief procurator, to supervise its activi¬ ties. The Synod persecuted all dissenters and censored publications, and Peter disposed of church property and revenues for state purposes at his own discretion. In 1917 a church council reestablished the patriarchate, but the new Soviet government soon nationalized all church-held lands.

holy war Any war fought by divine command or for a primarily reli¬ gious purpose. The concept is found in the Bible (e.g., the Book of Joshua)

and has played a role in many religions. The Crusades are Europe’s best- known example. In Islam, the concept is called jihad. Wars in which reli¬ gion plays a secondary or exacerbating role are not generally called holy wars.

Holyfield, Evander (b. Oct. 19, 1962, Atmore, Ala., U.S.) U.S. boxer. Holyfield is the only boxer to win a version of the heavyweight cham¬ pionship four separate times (Muhammad Au won the heavyweight cham¬ pionship three times). Holyfield’s first title win was against James “Buster” Douglas in 1990 and he won the unified title at that time. He lost the title to Riddick Bowe in 1992, recaptured it in 1993, and lost it to Michael Moorer in 1994. When he fought Mike Tyson in 1996, he regained only the WBA (World Boxing Association) portion of the title. In 1997 he won the IBF (International Boxing Federation) heavyweight title from Moorer. In Holyfield’s title defense against Tyson in 1997, Tyson was disqualified for biting Holyfield’s ear. Holyfield lost the IBF and WBA titles to the WBC (World Boxing Council) heavyweight cham¬ pion Lennox Lewis in 1999, but Lewis later was stripped of the WBA por¬ tion of his title, and when Holyfield beat John Ruiz in the subsequent WBA title bout in 2000, he became the first man to win a championship in the heavyweight division for the fourth time.

Holzer Vholt-sarX, Jenny (b. July 29, 1950, Gallipolis, Ohio, U.S.) U.S. conceptual artist. She studied at Duke University, the University of Chi¬ cago, and the Rhode Island School of Design. In the late 1970s she became involved with conceptual art and with artists known for their “word art,” which involved the display of words and text instead of visual images. In the late 1970s she began to display her “truisms,” slogans and brief confrontational statements, usually containing political or social critique, that she printed on posters and flyers and posted throughout Manhattan. In the 1980s and ’90s she displayed her messages on LED (light-emitting diode) signs, the medium with which she is most associated, in venues such as Times Square. Like most of her oeuvre, these works were meant to confront the viewer and elicit debate or discussion.

Home, Alec Douglas- See Sir Alec Douglas-Home home page See Web site

Home Rule, Irish Movement to secure internal autonomy for Ireland within the British Empire. The slogan “Home Rule” was popularized in 1870 when the Home Government Association (later the Home Rule League) called for an Irish parliament. It was led from 1878 by Charles Stewart Parnell, whose obstructionist tactics in the British Parliament pub¬ licized his country’s grievances. The Home Rule bills introduced by Prime Minister William E. Gladstone in 1885 and 1893 were defeated. A third bill became law in 1914 but was militantly opposed by Ulster unionists and republicans in Ireland. A system akin to home rule was established in the six counties of Ulster (Northern Ireland) in 1920. In 1921 the remaining 26 counties in the south achieved dominion status, but the link with the British Commonwealth was severed in 1949.

Homel See Homyel

homeopathy V.ho-me-'a-po-theV System of therapeutics founded in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann on the principle that “like cures like.” That is, substances that in healthy persons would produce the symptoms from which the patient suffers are used to treat the patient. Hahnemann further stated that the potency of a curative agent increases as the substance is diluted. When it was introduced, homeopathy was a mild, welcome alter¬ native to heavy-handed therapies such as bleeding, but it has since been criticized for focusing on symptoms rather than causes. With the rise of alternative medicine, it has seen a resurgence.

homeostasis X.ho-me-o-'sta-sosX Any self-regulating process by which a biological or mechanical system maintains stability while adjusting to changing conditions. Systems in dynamic equilibrium reach a balance in which internal change continuously compensates for external change in a feedback control process to keep conditions relatively uniform. An example is temperature regulation—mechanically in a room by a thermo¬ stat or biologically in the body by a complex system controlled by the hypothalamus, which adjusts breathing and metabolic rates, blood-vessel dilation, and blood-sugar level in response to changes caused by factors including ambient temperature, hormones, and disease.

Homer (fl. 9th or 8th century bc, Ionia?) Greek poet, one of the great¬ est and most influential writers of all time. Though almost nothing is known of his life, tradition holds that he was blind. The ancient Greeks

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Homer ► homology I 889

attributed to him the great epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey. Mod¬ em scholars generally agree that he composed (but probably did not lit¬ erally write) The Iliad, most likely relying on oral traditions, and at least inspired the composition of The Odyssey. The Iliad, set during the Trojan War, tells the story of the wrath of Achilles; The Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus as he travels home from the war. The two epics provided the basis of Greek education and culture in the Classical age, and they have remained among the most significant poems of the European tradition.

Homer, Winslow (b. Feb. 24, 1836, Boston, Mass., U.S.—d. Sept. 29, 1910, Prouts Neck, Maine) U.S. painter. He served an apprenticeship with a Boston lithographer, then became a freelance illustrator in New York City. He exhibited at the National Academy of Design in 1860 and was elected a member in 1865. During a stay in France in 1866, he was attracted to French naturalism and Japanese prints, but they had little effect on his generally bright and happy work. He became a master of watercolour and his ability as an oil painter matured; he focused increas¬ ingly on solitary, withdrawn figures. He spent 1881-82 in the English vil¬ lage of Tynemouth, on the North Sea, where the coastal atmosphere, the sea, and the stoic people are the subjects of some of his most powerful images. In 1883 he moved permanently to Prouts Neck, and his dominant theme became the sea and the endless struggle against an uncaring nature. In his later years he continued to paint vigorously and in near-total iso¬ lation. Though he was recognized in his lifetime as a leading U.S. painter, appreciation of his enormous achievement came only after his death.

Homestead Movement Mid-19th-century drive for free land in the U.S. Midwest, Great Plains, and West. It began in the 1830s as labourers and reformers joined farmers in calling for public land to be given free to settlers. In 1848 the Free Soil Party advocated the homestead proposal. Opposition from industrial employers and Southern slaveholders blocked legislation until the 1860 election, when the winning Republican Party sup¬ ported a homestead measure. In 1862 the Homestead Act was passed, providing 160 acres of public land free to any adult citizen or head of family who had lived on the land for five years. By 1900, 600,000 home¬ steaders had claimed 80 million acres.

Homestead National Monument Memorial, southeastern Nebraska, U.S. Established in 1936 as a memorial to the hardships of pio¬ neer life, it is the site of the first claim under the Homestead Act of 1862 and has exhibits tracing the development of the Homestead Movement. It occupies 163 acres (66 hectares) and includes a homestead log cabin.

Homestead Strike U.S. labour strike at Andrew Carnegie’s steelworks in Homestead, Pa., in July 1892. When the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers went on strike following a wage cut, the compa¬ ny’s manager, Henry Clay Frick, hired strikebreakers, with Pinkerton Agency detectives to protect them. A gun battle resulted in which several people were killed and many injured; the governor sent state militiamen to support the company. The broken strike represented a major setback to the union movement that was felt for decades.

homicide Killing of one human being by another. Homicide is a gen¬ eral term; it includes murder, manslaughter, and other criminal homicides as well as noncriminal killings. Murder is the crime of intentionally and unjustifiably killing another. In the U.S., first-degree murder is a homi¬ cide committed with premeditation or in the course of a serious felony (e.g., kidnapping). Second- and third-degree murder involve lesser degrees of intent. Manslaughter is commonly divided into voluntary (or first- degree) and involuntary (or second- and third-degree) manslaughter. The first type encompasses any homicide resulting from an intentional act done without malice or premeditation and while in the heat of passion or on sudden provocation; the second type is variously defined in different jurisdictions but often includes an element of unlawful recklessness or negligence. Noncriminal homicides include killings committed in defense of oneself or another and deaths resulting from accidents caused by per¬ sons engaged in lawful acts. See also felony and misdemeanour; self-defense.

hominid Vha-mo-.nidV Any member of the zoological family Hominidae (order Primates), which consists of the great apes (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos) as well as human beings. Formerly, only humans (with their extinct forebears) were categorized as hominids, and the great apes were categorized as pongids—that is, members of the pri¬ mate family Pongidae. However, morphological and molecular studies now indicate that humans are closely related to chimpanzees, while goril¬ las are more distant and orangutans more distant still. As a result, it has

become more common among zoologists to consider humans and great apes to be hominids. See also hominin.

hominin Vha-m3- l nin\ Any member of the zoological “tribe” Hominini (family Hominidae, order Primates), of which only one species exists today— Homo sapiens, or human beings. The term is used most often to refer to extinct members of the human lineage, some of which are now quite well known from fossil remains: Homo neanderthalensis (the Nean¬ derthals), Homo erectus. Homo habilis, and various species of Australopith¬ ecus. The primate group most closely related to Hominini today is Gorillini (the African apes), comprising the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the bonobo. Gorillini and Hominini are part of the great ape family, Hom¬ inidae. Some characteristics that have distinguished hominins from other primates, living and extinct, are their erect posture, bipedal locomotion, larger brains, and behavioral characteristics such as specialized tool use and, in some cases, communication through language.

Homo Genus of the primate family Hominidae. Members of Homo are characterized by a relatively large cranium (braincase), limb structure adapted to erect posture and a two-footed gait, well-developed and fully opposable thumbs, hands capable of power and precision grips, and the ability to make precision tools. The genus includes modern humans ( Homo sapiens), the extinct species Homo habilis. Homo erectus, and Homo neanderthalensis (the Neanderthals), and the early form of H. sapiens known as Cro-Magnon.

Homo erectus Latin "upright man" Extinct species of early hom¬ inin, perhaps a direct ancestor of human beings ( Homo sapiens). Homo erectus flourished from c. 1,700,000 to 200,000 years ago, ranging widely from Africa (where the species probably originated) to Asia to parts of Europe. Most of the anatomical differences between H. erectus and H. sapiens concern the skull and teeth, H. erectus showing a low, thick braincase (800-1,100 cc) with jutting browridges and a wide nose, pal¬ ate, and jaw together with large teeth that are nevertheless hominin and not apelike. The limb bones are similar to those of H. sapiens, indicating that H. erectus was of medium stature and walked upright. The species is associated with the Acheulean tool tradition and was the first hominin to master fire and inhabit caves. See also human evolution; Java man; Zhouk-

OUDIAN.

Homo habilis V.ho-mo-'ha-bo-bsV Latin "handy man" Extinct spe¬ cies of early hominin that is generally regarded as the earliest member of the human genus, Homo. Homo habilis inhabited parts of sub-Saharan Africa about 2-1.5 million years ago. Remains were first discovered in 1959 and 1960 at Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania; additional remains have since been found in the Lake Turkana region of northern Kenya and, arguably, at Sterkfontein in South Africa. The cranial capacity of H. habi¬ lis ranged from 500 to 800 cc. Limb bones suggest that the species walked upright efficiently, and the fossil of a hand suggests that H. habilis was capable of precise manipulation of objects. Crude tools found along with H. habilis remains provide further evidence that this species could shape stone. See also human evolution; Oldowan industry.

Homo sapiens Latin "wise man" Species to which all modem human beings belong. The oldest known fossil remains date to c. 120,000 years ago—or much earlier (c. 400,000 years ago) if evidence of certain archaic varieties is included. Homo sapiens is distinguished from earlier hominin species by characteristics and habits such as bipedal stance and gait, brain capacity averaging about 1,350 cc, high forehead, small teeth and jaw, defined chin, construction and use of tools, and ability to use symbols. Most scholars believe that modern humans developed in Africa c. 150,000 years ago and spread to the Middle East c. 100,000 years ago and to other parts of Eurasia c. 40,000-50,000 years ago (this is known as the “single-origin” model). Others contend that modern humans devel¬ oped from various regional populations of archaic H. sapiens or even other species of Homo in Eurasia beginning c. 250,000 years ago (the “multiregional” model). In the first model the genetic differences that exist between the peoples of the world would not be very old; in the second model they would be significantly older. In any case, by c. 11,000 bc modern H. sapiens had peopled virtually the entire globe. See also Cro- Magnon; culture; human evolution; Neanderthal.

homology Similarity of the structure, physiology, or development of different species of organisms based on their descent from a common evolutionary ancestor. Analogy, by contrast, is a functional similarity of structure that is based not on common evolutionary origins but on mere similarity of use. The forelimbs of such widely differing mammals as

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

890 I homosexual rights ► Honen

humans, bats, and deer are homologous; the form of construction and the number of bones in each are practically identical and represent adaptive modifications of the forelimb structure of their shared ancestor. The wings of birds and insects, on the other hand, are merely analogous; they are used for flight in both types of organisms but do not share a common ancestral origin.

homosexual rights movement See gay rights movement

homosexuality Sexual interest in and attraction to members of one’s own sex. Female homosexuality is frequently referred to as lesbianism; the word gay is often used as an alternative for both “homosexual” and “les¬ bian,” though it may refer specifically to male homosexuality. At differ¬ ent times and in different cultures, homosexual behaviour has variously been encouraged, approved of, tolerated, punished, and banned. Homo¬ sexuality was not uncommon in ancient Greece and Rome, particularly between adult and adolescent males. Jewish, Christian, and Muslim cul¬ tures have generally viewed it as sinful, although many religious leaders have said it is the act, and not the inclination, that their faiths proscribe. Attitudes toward homosexuality are generally in flux, partly because of increased political activism (see gay rights movement). Until the early 1970s many medical organizations, such as the American Psychiatric Association, classified homosexuality as a mental illness, but that desig¬ nation was widely dropped in subsequent years. Longstanding beliefs about homosexuals (including the stereotype that gay men are weak and effeminate and lesbians aggressive and masculine) have also largely faded; some countries, cultures, and religious groups, however, continue to view homosexuality as deviant. Homosexual orientation, like sexual¬ ity in general, apparently results from a combination of hereditary factors and social or environmental influences, and it tends to coexist with het¬ erosexual feelings in varying degrees in different individuals.

homozygote and heterozygote Two genetic possibilities for a fertilized egg. If the two sex cells (gametes) that fuse during fertilization carry the same form of a gene for a specific trait, the organism is said to be a homozygote for that trait. If the gametes carry differing forms of the gene, the result is a heterozygote. Because genes may be either dominant or recessive (see dominance and recessiveness), the genetic composition (genotype) of an organism cannot always be determined by the organism’s physical appearance (phenotype).

Homs See Hims

Homyel \ko-'myel\ Russian Homel \ho-'mel\ City (pop., 2001 est.: 490,000), capital of Homyel province, southeastern Belarus. First men¬ tioned in ad 1142 as Gomy, it passed to Lithuania in the 14th century and later to Poland; it was acquired by Russia in 1772. In the late 19th cen¬ tury it developed as a major railway junction, and industries began to flourish. The city, on the Sozh River, is an important port, with river con¬ nections to towns on the Dnieper (Dnyapro) River. It is also an industrial centre.

Honan See Henan

Honda Motor Co, Japanese manufacturer of motorcycles and auto¬ mobiles. Founded as a maker of small, efficient engines by the engineer Honda Soichiro in 1946, the company was incorporated as Honda Motor Co. in 1948. The Honda C-100, a small-engine motorcycle, was intro¬ duced in 1953 and by 1959 was the largest-selling motorcycle in the world. In 1959 the company established a U.S. subsidiary. The compa¬ ny’s sales now come largely from automobiles, which it began manufac¬ turing in 1963. Especially known for lightweight, fuel-efficient passenger cars such as the Civic and Accord, it is today one of the largest automo¬ bile companies in the world. Its headquarters are in Tokyo.

Honduras officially Republic of Honduras Country, Central America. Area: 43,433 sq mi (112,492 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 7,187,000. Capital: Tegucigalpa. The great majority of the population are mestizos. Language: Spanish (official). Religion: Christianity (predomi¬ nantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: Honduran lempira. The second largest country in Central America, Honduras has an almost 400-mi (645-km) coastline on the Caribbean Sea to the north and a 45-mi (72-km) coast centred on the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific Ocean side of the isthmus. More than three-fourths of Honduras is mountainous and wooded. The eastern lowlands include part of the Mosquito Coast. Most of the people live in isolated communities in the mountainous interior, where the climate is hot and rainy. The economy is primarily agricultural; bananas, coffee, and sugar are the main export crops, and corn is the chief

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domestic staple. Honduras is a multiparty republic with one legislative house, and the head of state and government is the presi¬ dent. The Maya civilization flourished in the region in the 1st millennium ad. There

are architectural and sculptural remains of a ceremonial centre at Copan, which was in use from c. 465 to c. 800. Christopher Columbus reached Honduras in 1502, and Spanish settlement followed. A major war between the Spaniards and the Indians broke out in 1537; the conflict ended in the decimation of the Indian population through disease and enslavement. After 1570 Honduras was part of the captaincy general of Guatemala, until Central American independence in 1821. It was then part of the United Provinces of Central America but withdrew in 1838 and declared its inde¬ pendence. In the 20th century, under military rule, there was nearly con¬ stant civil war. A civilian government was elected in 1981. The military remained influential, however, as the activity of leftist guerrillas increased. Flooding caused by a hurricane in 1998 devastated the coun¬ try, killing several thousand people and leaving hundreds of thousands homeless. In 2001 Honduras was hit by a severe drought.

Honecker Vho-ns-korV Erich (b. Aug. 25, 1912, Neunkirchen, Ger.—d. May 29, 1994, Chile) German communist head of East Germa¬ ny’s Socialist Unity Party (1971-89) and chairman of the Council of State (1976-89). A member of the German Communist Party, he was impris¬ oned by the Nazis from 1935 to 1945. In 1946 he cofounded and led the Free German Youth movement in East Germany. In 1961 he oversaw the building of the Berlin Wall. He succeeded Walter Ulbricht as head of East Germany, which under his rule was one of the most repressive but also one of the most prosperous of the Soviet-bloc countries. He allowed the growth of some trade and travel ties with West Germany in return for West German financial aid. He was forced to resign with the collapse of communism in 1989.

Honegger \,6-na-'ger,\ English Vha-ni-garV, Arthur (b. March 10, 1892, Le Havre, France—d. Nov. 27, 1955, Paris) French composer. Born to Swiss-French parents, he studied in Zurich, then at the Paris Conserva¬ tory. One of the group known as Les Six, though not truly in sympathy with its aims, he first gained international renown for his oratorio Le Roi David (1921). His exciting orchestral piece Pacific 231 (1923), portraying a loco¬ motive, caused a sensation. Prolific throughout his life, he composed five symphonies (including Symphony No. 3 known as Liturgique, for the end of World War II), the oratorio Jeanne d’Arc au bucher (1938), and numerous scores for ballet, theatre, and films (including Abel Gance’s Napoleon).

Honen Vho-nen\ orig. Seishimaru (b. May 13, 1133, Inaoka, Mimasaka province, Japan—d. Feb. 29, 1212, Kyoto) Japanese Buddhist leader. As a monk at the Mount Hiei monastery of the Tendai (Tiantai)

© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

honey ► Hongwu I 891

sect, he learned the Pure Land doctrines of Chinese Buddhism (see Pure Land Buddhism), which taught salvation by the mercy of Amitabha Buddha, and he subsequently became the founder of the Pure Land (Jodo) sect in Japan. H5nen believed that few people were spiritually capable of fol¬ lowing the Buddha’s own path to enlightenment, and in 1175 he pro¬ claimed that the only thing needed for salvation was the nembutsu, or chanting of the name of Amida (Amitabha). Honen settled at Kyoto and gathered disciples, including Shinran. Persecuted by other Buddhists, he was driven into exile in 1207 but returned to Kyoto in 1211.

honey Sweet, viscous liquid food, golden in colour, produced in the honey sacs of various bees from the nectar of flowers. Honey has played an important role in human nutrition since ancient times; until about 250 years ago, it was almost the sole sweetening agent. Honey is often pro¬ duced on a commercial scale from clover ( Trifolium) or sweet clover ( Melilotus ) by the domestic honeybee. The nectar is ripened into honey by inversion of most of its sucrose into the sugars levulose (fructose) and dextrose (glucose) and the removal of excess moisture. Honey is stored in the beehive or nest in a honeycomb, a double layer of uniform hex¬ agonal cells constructed of beeswax and propolis (a plant resin). The honey is used in winter as food for the bee larvae and other members of the colony. Honey extracted for human consumption is usually heated to destroy fermentation-causing yeasts and then strained. See also beekeeping.

honey bear See sun bear

honeybee Broadly, any bee that makes honey (any insect of the tribe Apini, family Apidae); more strictly, one of the four species constituting the genus Apis. The term is usually applied to one species, the domestic honeybee (A. mellifera ), also known as the European domestic bee or western honeybee. The other Apis species are confined to Asia. A. mel¬ lifera is usually about 0.5 in. (1.2 cm) long. All honeybees are social insects that live in nests or hives. They have three castes: workers (undeveloped females), queens, and drones (sting¬ less males). See also beekeeping.

honeysuckle family Family Caprifoliaceae, containing approxi¬ mately 500 species. It is well known for its many ornamental woody shrubs and vines, composed mostly of northern temperate species but including some tropical mountain plants. The genus Lonicera contains shrubs with opposite leaves and often showy flowers rich in nectar. One member, Japanese honeysuckle (L. japonica), is a highly fragrant flowering vine that kills other plants by climbing over them and shutting out the light. Also included in this family is the elder.

Hong Kong Chinese Xianggang Vshyag-'gaqV or Hsiang-kang

Special administrative region of China (pop., 2005 est.: 6,926,000). Located on China’s southern coast, it consists of the island of Hong Kong and adjacent islets in the South China Sea (ceded by China to the British in 1842), the Kowloon Peninsula (ceded in 1860), and the New Territo¬ ries (leased by the British from China from 1898 to 1997). The entire territory was returned to China in 1997. It covers 425 sq mi (1,102 sq km); the New Territories, lying north of the Kowloon Peninsula and con¬ stituting an enclave in China’s Guangdong province, are more than nine- tenths of the total area. The administrative centre of Victoria on Hong Kong island’s northwestern coast is also the centre of economic activi¬ ties. Hong Kong has an excellent natural harbour and is one of the world’s major trade and financial centres. It has many educational institutions, including the University of Hong Kong (1911). See map opposite.

Hong Kydng-nae \ , h6q- , kyoq-na\ Rebellion Peasant uprising in northern Korea in 1812 organized by Hong Kyong-nae, a fallen yangban (court official), in response to oppressive taxation and forced labour dur¬ ing a time of famine caused by crop failure. The rebels prevailed for sev¬ eral months and were put down only after a concerted military campaign. A similar rebellion occurred in the 1860s.

Hong Xiuquan Vhuq-she-'u-chie-'anN or Hung Hsiu-ch'uan (b.

Jan. 1, 1814, Fuyuanshui, Guangdong, China—d. June 1, 1864, Nanjing) Chinese religious prophet, leader of the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64). Born

Honeybee (Apis mellifera )

INGMAR HOLMASEN

into a poor Hakka family, Hong showed signs of great intelligence but failed three times to obtain even the lowest degree on the civil-service exams. Suffering an emotional collapse, he had a vision in which he was instructed to rid the world of evil demons. He became the leader of his own brand of Christianity, demanded the abolition of opium smoking and prostitution, and promised an ultimate reward to his followers. In 1850 he began plotting a rebellion; the next year he declared himself Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Taiping Tianguo). His army of more than a million men and women soldiers captured Nanjing, which became Hong’s new capital. Power struggles culminated in his leaving affairs of state to his incompetent older brothers; he withdrew and committed suicide in 1864 after a lingering illness.

Hongli See Qianlong emperor

Hongshan \'huq-'shan\ culture or Hung-shan culture (4000- 3000 bc) Prehistoric culture of far northern China. It appears to have had a three-tiered elite whose members were honoured with complex burials. Painted pottery found there may link it to Yangshao culture, while its beautiful jade artifacts link it to other jade-working cultures on the east¬ ern coast, such as Liangzhu (3300-2200 bc). See also Erlitou culture; Longshan culture.

Hongshui River or Hung-shui \'hui]-'shwe\ River River, southern China, a principal source stream of the Xi River. Rising as the Nanpan in eastern Yunnan province, it flows south and east to form part of the boundary between Guizhou province and Guangxi autonomous region. Flowing for 215 mi (345 km), it unites with the Yu River at Guiping to form what eventually becomes the Xi River.